Less publicized than hypotheses about the negative effects of television on cognitive development , scholastic achievement , and social behavior are research investigations into the positive effects of television viewing on factors such as interest , creativity , and imagination ( Leonard , 1997 ). Howard Gardner ( 1982 , 1991 , 1993 ), a well-known developmental psychologist at Harvard University , is a proponent of the idea that certain kinds of television stimulate creativity and imagination in young children . However , the research results supporting these types of positive hypotheses are modest at best ( Seels et al ., 1996 ).
Exemplary Programs
Two television shows that have been subjected to more educational research than any others in the USA are Mister Rogers ’ Neighborhood ( Collins & Kimmel , 1996 ) and Sesame Street ( Lovelace , 1990 ; Mielke , 1990 ), both shown on public television stations . Sesame Street , distributed in more than 90 countries , has also been studied internationally ( Gettas , 1990 ).
The goals of Mister Rogers ’ Neighborhood are primary affective , and research has demonstrated positive effects on the self-esteem of children and their tendencies to value others ( Seels et al ., 1996 ). With emphasis on both socialization and cognitive development , Sesame Street has been shown to have positive outcomes in terms of school readiness as well as math , reading , and social skills ( Seels et al ., 1996 ). Interestingly , some researchers have focused on whether the slower-paced Mister Rogers ’ Neighborhood and the faster-paced Sesame Street have differential effects on children ’ s attention spans , but such studies are inconclusive ( Anderson & Collins , 1988 ; Seels et al ., 1996 ).
Research Results
The most positive research news about learning “ from ” television can be found in the classroom where 40 years of research show positive effects on learning from television programs that are explicitly produced and used for instructional purposes ( Dorr , 1992 ; Seels et al ., 1996 ). In addition , most studies show that there are no significant differences in effectiveness between live teacher presentations and videos of teacher presentations ( Seels et al ., 1996 ).
More importantly , there is strong evidence that television is used most effectively when it is intentionally designed for education and when teachers are involved in its selection , utilization , and integration into the curriculum ( Johnson , 1987 ). In the past , the biggest barrier to the integration of television programs into the classroom was the fixed-time limitation of instructional broadcasts , but the widespread availability of video cassette recorders ( VCRs ) has provided teachers with the ease-of-use and flexibility they require ( Mielke , 1990 ).
Increasingly , television is coming into schools via cable and or satellite transmissions . The Star Schools Consortium in the USA is one of the largest such enterprises , providing scores of telecourses in thousands of schools across the nation ( Moore & Kearsley , 1996 ). Most often , programs received via satellite dish or cable are recorded by media specialists or technology coordinators and
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