subsequently made available for teachers when and how they choose . Flexibility of scheduling and ease of access to equipment and programs are the biggest factors promoting classroom use of television ( Dorr , 1992 ; Seels et al ., 1996 )
A few programs are still intended for use at specific times . Perhaps the most controversial of these in the USA is Channel One , ten minutes of news and advertisements produced by Whittle Communications ( www . channelone . com ). This program is seen by an estimated eight million adolescents in 12,000 schools in the USA each day ( De Vaney , 1994 ). CNN , NBC , and other networks broadcast news into American classrooms , but Channel One is best known for the contracts it arranges with school districts whereby Whittle donates TV monitors and satellite receivers to schools in return for guaranteed viewing time each school day . Whittle recovers its costs from the fees it charges corporations for product advertisements aimed at the captive teen viewers . Interestingly , what little research has been done indicates that students ignore the advertisements and that teachers are not integrating the news portions of the program into the curriculum ( De Vaney , 1994 ).
Historically , studies of the large-scale implementations of instructional television have shown mixed results . Three major forms of utilization have been investigated : 1 ) instances where the total instructional program is delivered via televised teachers , 2 ) instances where there is an integration of teacher-directed instruction with television programming , and 3 ) instances where television is used to supplement teacher-centered instruction , either for enrichment or remedial purposes . Cuban ( 1986 ) reports that total instructional television programs in countries such as American Samoa and El Salvador have met with initial enthusiasm , but declined in popularity after the novelty wore off and both students and teachers demanded less television and a return to regular classroom activities . Some studies indicate that students in rural schools , where quality teachers were less likely to be available , benefited the most from televised instruction ( Seels et al ., 1996 ).
However , television has been rarely used to totally replace teachers in any country , and television is usually used in coordination with or to supplement the regular curriculum ( Cuban , 1986 ). Here the results are much more positive . A large-scale survey of teachers in the USA conducted in 1991 by the Corporation for Public Broadcasting indicated that “ instructional television is a firmly established teaching tool that is positively regarded by classroom teachers and increasingly well-supported with equipment and programming ” ( Seels et al ., 1996 , p . 356 ). Writing in the Encyclopedia of Educational Research , Dorr ( 1992 ) concluded : “ There is no doubt that television is an effective means of achieving traditional instructional goals ” ( p . 1398 ).
Future Needs
Unfortunately , there is a paucity of developmental research focused on how teachers might best use television in the classroom to enhance academic achievement . We know that motivation is an important factor in gaining the most
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