Under Construction Journal Issue 6.1 UNDER CONSTRUCTION JOURNAL 6.1 | Page 84

especially green, since this was related to Islam. They could not inherit from Muslims, conversion was
forbidden, they could not marry Muslim women and their houses and worship places could not be
ostentatious. They were excluded from some positions in the government and were subject to special
taxes (jizya). Christians were forbidden from building new churches (although they built some in the
suburbs and outside of Cordoba). Also, they were not afforded the right to possess arms, although many
Christians acted as mercenaries. In times of crisis, such as famines, Christians and Jews could suffer
hostility from the masses (Hourani 2013).
Muwallads and Berbers in Society
Muwallads were the indigenous population converted to Islam. In al-Andalus, they composed the humbler
classes of the society, were discriminated against by Arabs and long-standing Muslim populations, and
were often excluded from offices in the government. This discrimination was a source of social instability
within al-Andalus (Hillgarth 1977).
Berbers, nomadic tribes from North Africa, featured amongst the groups constituting the initial
Muslim conquering wave of 711. They intermarried with the native population and established frontiers
in Castilla and Extremadura, which were the poorest lands within Spain’s north and central regions. They
became a rural proletariat dedicated mainly to sheep-raising. They were disliked by the native population
and discriminated against by Arabs, a dynamic which also brought instability to al-Andalus (Hillgarth
1977).
Slaves in Society
Slaves came to al-Andalus through being captured in war and/or being sold into the slave trade. They
often performed domestic services roles and served as mercenaries for the Emirs. In the Muslim world,
slaves were entitled to be treated with justice. The owner could not kill them at will: rather, good practice
was to free them after good service. Even when free, relationships between erstwhile slaves and ex-
masters endured. Caliphs had a great number of slaves both in the army and the palace: part of the eunuch
cohort guarded the Harem, others ran administrative offices, others still filled ranks of the royal guard.
During the reign of Abd al-Rahman III slaves became the new nobility controlling the government. Ibn
Idhari thus noted that: “they served in the Palace, but they ruled in it like lords”. Their subsequent wealth
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