Under Construction Journal Issue 6.1 UNDER CONSTRUCTION JOURNAL 6.1 | Page 83

hypocrites who deny the faith": Furthermore, the Sunnah and hadith carry the example of the Prophet as
a military leader in Medina (Cortright 2008).
An often-misunderstood concept is that of Jihad. Its primary meaning is the personal struggle
against sin and evil, and to seek the moral path aimed by God. It also signifies an imperative to fight for
social justice. Nonetheless, Jihad as a justified holy war has its limits. Only the leaders of the community
can carry it out and it cannot be done for personal benefit: Women and children are exempted unless
they help the enemy (Stearns 2014).
Instability
Unfortunately, al-Andalus was not historically a peaceful kingdom. Quite the opposite, it was troubled by
continuous civil wars throughout much of its history. From one side, the central power of the Umayyads
tried to control the whole territory, whilst from the other, local lords fought to keep their independence.
To this account of strife can be added the hostilities between the different parts of the society: Arabs,
Berbers, Muwallads, Mozarabs, Jews and slaves (Collins 2012).
Spanish mountainous geography also helped to create areas of difficult access which local lords
could consequently exercise independent rule over more easily. If conquered by the Umayyads, local lords
often rebelled. The root of these rebellions was a preference for independent rule, the minimal return
from taxes paid to the central government (often in form of fortifications) and the obligation to participate
in the Umayyads military campaigns. Bandits also represented a problem with their guerrilla tactics and
refugees. Furthermore, Vikings raided al-Andalus in 845, whilst the region was sporadically beset by flood
and famines. Finally, military campaigns are in categorical opposition to peace and the Umayyads
frequently raided the Christians realms at least twice per year. The motivation for these raids consisted
of loot, captives and demonstration of the emir’s virtues as a defender of Islam (Collins 2012).
Christians and Jews in Society
Tolerant societies tend to be calmer. The Quran tolerates the existence of Christians and Jews and
therefore a society closely adhering to its principles reduces potential points of conflict. However, while
Christians and Jews could keep their religion and be governed by their own laws and magistrates, they
were also discriminated against. Specifically, they had to avoid wearing or displaying certain colours,
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