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of engagement of different ITR groups. Returnees and those wishing to return may want to participate in smaller, more interactive meetings to discuss and address their specific concerns, while those who are undecided or do not wish to return may want to hear the opinions of others. They wish to participate in larger meetings for a larger meeting to remain anonymous and also not to have to justify their position concerning the risks linked to radiation.
In both normal and crisis times, people turn to social networks for information and support. In addition, social capital contributes to resilience and the faster recovery of individuals after natural disasters( Uekusa et al., 2022; Staněk et al., 2021). In our study, 50.9 % of returnee residents rated their levels of community trust and attachment as high or middle, and they had higher levels of social cohesion, even in affected areas. Interestingly, high perceived levels of reciprocity, even among those not wanting to return( 86.8 %), presented a complex picture, suggesting positive connections in their current communities( to where they had evacuated). Previous studies of social cohesion and place attachment have shown that evacuees had weak ties to their former places of residence, despite maintaining strong ties to neighborhood associations before the disaster( Matsumoto, 2018). This underscores the significance of factors like work responsibilities, family presence, and property ownership in influencing evacuees’ decisions to return( Do, 2020). It is also important to consider the effect of age. Older people with strong ties to the community were more likely to return, while younger people were more likely to look for opportunities elsewhere( Gagné, 2020). Civic participation did not show statistical significance between returnees and evacuees in our analyses. It has been suggested that disaster recovery efforts may need to move beyond traditional forms of community participation to include diverse populations( Bodas et al., 2022). The lack of social networks, support, and trust after the Fukushima accident led to stress, suffering, and depression among many people in Japan. Social capital plays an important role in overcoming these difficulties and improving health and well-being( Murakami et al., 2019). However, there were also negative impacts, such as disagreements over safety, compensation, or reconstruction plans; hence, social cohesion was disrupted, which made it difficult to rebuild trust and community spirit( Villalonga-Olives et al., 2017). The level of people’ s trust in industry, the government, and citizen groups is determined by factors such as openness and honesty, concern and care, competence, people’ s concern with risks, and shared values. In particular, it has been suggested that an organization’ s sense of openness is not attained merely by the disclosure of information, but also by bi-directional communication with the public( Maeda et al., 2002; Ando et al., 2023). Overall, social capital plays a complex and multifaceted role in ITR decisions. Restoring social trust and self-worth among affected people is crucial to the recovery process, requiring their inclusion in decision-making processes. This involves respecting survivors’ preferences and cultural values, and engaging all stakeholders, including authorities, professionals, NGOs, the media, and local leaders( Thu Zar et al., 2023).
The study clarified that more than half of those who have already returned assessed their mental state as“ good,” while more than half of those who did not want to return rated it as
“ bad.” Although the PCS of HR-QOL showed no statistical significance, psychological distress among evacuees is an acute problem that needs to be addressed, and social support remains a pressing need for people affected by the consequences of any nuclear accident( Yamaguchi et al., 2017).
There were disturbing differences between risk perception and ITR. Although 74.3 % of the returnees thought the possibility of genetic effects would not occur due to the accident, only 48.4 % of those undecided about ITR felt the same. In particular, those who were undecided or who did not want to return tended to overestimate radiation health risks. In general, the interaction of a risk factor with social, institutional, and cultural processes can strengthen or weaken society’ s response to it( Panchenko, 2001). In Tomioka town, for example, reconstruction began with the residents’ opinions in mind, which was very important for their level of trust and further reconstruction( Yamakawa et al., 2017).
Interestingly, the returnees had low levels of reluctance to consume local foods in Tomioka or Okuma, compared to the non-returnees. The reason for this may be that food monitoring centers were established in both towns. At these centers, residents can measure radiation levels and decide if a food is safe to consume. The centers are also staffed by specialists, and residents can get advice not only on nutrition but also in a broader sense( Tomioka Town office; NEA, 2020). This is consistent with a previous study that emphasized the role of familiarity and trust in overcoming food safety problems after disasters( Uchida et al., 2015). However, approximately half of all respondents remain reluctant to consume local foods. Objective risk, subjective perception, and individual decisionmaking are marked by complex interactions. This suggests the need to emphasize continued efforts to build trust in food monitoring systems and the information residents receive.
A study of people living near an operating nuclear power plant in China found that women have a relatively high perception of risk. They are also sensitive to environmental risks and tend to experience increased levels of stress and anxiety( Sung et al., 2022). The differences in responsibilities and priorities between men and women may reflect the ITR differences in in these groups. To provide security for their children, mothers often leave their jobs and other parts of life behind, while their husbands remain at the evacuation site and continue working. This has led to a distorted gendered distribution of population and labor( Shimizu, 2022). The development of gender-sensitive tools for information provision, counseling, and dialogue methods is essential, especially for mothers. In addition, the influence of women leaders in supporting these efforts is noteworthy.
The immediate response to the nuclear accident at the FDNPS included a series of measures aimed at safeguarding public health, such as evacuation, iodine prophylaxis, and regulating the distribution of contaminated food and water. Evacuation orders were executed in stages, covering areas at different radii around the plant. Subsequent decontamination efforts were extensive, encompassing residential areas, agricultural lands, and forests; however, despite these concerted efforts, indicators of population return remain low, both in Okuma and Tomioka, where evacuation orders began to be lifted in 2019 and 2017, respectively, prompting reflection on the efficacy of decontamination measures and the