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stereoscopic visual effect. This technology exhibits the following two key characteristics. First, due to the transient nature of the fog screen, audiences can freely walk through it and interact with the virtual images, making it suitable for applications in stage performances for low-light and nighttime environments. Second, with a typical projection height ranging from 1 to 1.5 m, the system employs integrated ultrasonic movement instead of traditional mechanical drives. This setup not only enables efficient atomization and the release of high-concentration negative ions, but also offers operational advantages such as low noise, low failure rates, and ease of maintenance.
3.4 Floating 3D display technology Floating 3D display technology refers to an optical technique that generates dynamic volumetric imagery in free space. Its core principle relies on light field reconstruction or leveraging persistence of vision, to transform 2D or 3D image source data into optical projections with depth perception [ 47, 48 ]. This technology integrates optical engineering, computer vision, and human visual perception mechanisms, requiring high-precision modulation of light wave phase, amplitude, and propagation paths to achieve suspended display effects with physical depth and multiangle visibility [ 49 ].
Based on the fundamental principles and practical applications, this paper proposes six methods for floating 3D display technology, including drones-based floating stereoscopic display, floating stereoscopic display of negative refractive index materials, floating stereoscopic display of microchannel matrix optical waveguide, floating stereoscopic display of retro-reflective film, plasma-based floating stereoscopic display, and acoustic wave-based floating stereoscopic display [ 47 ]. The detailed features of six display methods are listed in Table 5.
3.4.1 Floating 3D display of drones
The application of drones-based floating 3D display achieves asignificant leap in the realm of night-time entertainment, integrating cutting-edge technology with creative expression, as shown in Figures 9 and 10. Unlike traditional fireworks, which are limited to brief bursts of light and sound, drone light shows offer dynamic, programmable display capable of lasting longer, changing shapes, and even interacting with their environment in real-time. These performances rely on sophisticated algorithms and precise synchronization to control hundreds, and in some cases thousands, of drones simultaneously, creating fluid and captivating 3D patterns and animations. The drones are equipped with LED lights that can change color and brightness, enhancing the visual depth and detail of the images. This technology allows for an unprecedented level of customization and creativity, with the ability to depict complex scenes information, and even mimic shapes and logos in midair. Compared to traditional fireworks that produce smoke, debris, and noise, drone light shows are more eco-friendly. As a result, they have gained widespread popularity worldwide, particularly in settings such as national celebrations, large-scale concerts, sporting events, and cultural festivals.
The adaptability, precision, and sustainability of drone light displays make them an attractive choice for modern event organizers seeking to create memorable experiences [ 48 ].
In 2025, a drone performance in Chongqing demonstrated core advantages in achieving highly reliable and precise swarm control of an ultra-large-scale formation – comprising 11,787 drones – within the complex urban mountainous environment, showcasing world-leading capabilities in collaborative aerial technology [ 49 ]. Its innovation is characterized by dual breakthroughs in both technical methodology and artistic expression. The“ dual-formation” control architecture successfully transforms abstract cultural elements, such as classical Chinese poetry, the city flower, and the spirit of Chongqing, into dynamic, 3D aerial imagery, thereby achieving a profound integration of cutting-edge technology with rich cultural heritage. The initiative holds significant practical value. It establishes a global benchmark for integrating culture and tourism in the emerging low-altitude economy, attracting clusters of high-value industries. Moreover, through the spectacular blend of“ technology and culture”, it enhances Chongqing’ s image as a dynamic, innovative, and internationally appealing city. This achievement significantly accelerates the shift of drone swarm technology from laboratory demonstrations to practical industrial applications, establishing an advanced model that enhances urban soft power.
To ensure that thousands of drones can execute predesigned 3D animations at an altitude of 100 meters, this system integrates expertise across multiple fields, such as multi-rotor aircraft, automatic control, wireless communication, flight path planning, 3D modeling, and LED programming. During the design phase, text and images are incorporated into 3D animations, with specialized software and algorithms generating unique flight paths for each drone. Each drone accurately determines its position in the air, ensuring vivid and detailed animations through precise positioning. As the number of drones increases, the complexity and richness of the images are enhanced accordingly. However, higher drone counts also lead to exponential growth in communication data volume, imposing greater demands on back-end processing and analytical capabilities [ 48 ].
In 2025, Martin Schuck et al. pioneered the use of a large language model( LLM) as a“ choreographer” for drone swarm performances, enabling users to intuitively describe dance movements in natural language while the system autonomously generates synchronized drone trajectories, as shown in Figure 11 [ 50 ]. By decoupling high-level artistic expression( conveyed through language) from low-level motion planning( ensured through safety control), the system significantly lowers the technical barrier for designing choreography. This technology holds promising potential for applications in large-scale events, including concerts, sports competitions, opening ceremonies, and light shows.
Unlike the earlier market, which was largely driven by government clients, cultural tourism projects and tourist attractions are now becoming the main focus of the drones show market. In 2021, these projects made up 36 % of the market share. Research shows that the global drones show