Vitamin C Vitamin C ( ascorbate ) modulates immune cell function and supports Th1 cytokine-mediated immune responses . 16 Vitamin C enhances neutrophil chemotaxis and T-lymphocyte proliferation in response to infection and increases cytokine production and synthesis of immunoglobulins . 45 Vitamin C is highly concentrated in leukocytes and is used rapidly during infection . 45 Vitamin C has anti-inflammatory , 45 antioxidant , 67 and free radical scavenging effects . 67 Vitamin C interacts with other antioxidants , including tocopherol , glutathione and thioredoxin , and stimulates the synthesis and activation of antioxidant enzymes , such as superoxide dismutase , glutathione peroxidase , and catalase . 67 It is also involved in the synthesis and metabolism of collagen , catecholamines , carnitine , and the metabolism of tyrosine . 15
Vitamin D Vitamin D3 ( Colecalciferol ) plays an essential role in both cell-mediated and humoral antibody responses . 16 It regulates immune system response , 45 increases the oxidative burst potential of macrophages , 45 and supports a Th2- mediated anti-inflammatory cytokine profile . 16 Vitamin D is involved with the absorption and metabolism of calcium , 68-71 calcium homeostasis , 68 metabolism of phosphate , 69-71 bone metabolism , 68 , 70 differentiation , 68 and overall metabolic function . 71
Vitamin E Vitamin E , as tocopherols and tocotrienols , are antioxidants and free radical scavengers . 15 Vitamin E optimises and enhances the immune system . 45 It increases lymphocyte proliferation in response to mitogens , and increases the production of IL-2 and natural killer cell cytotoxic activity , and phagocytic activity by alveolar macrophages . 45 It also supports a Th1 cytokine-mediated immune response and modulates immune cell function . 16 Vitamin E protects cell membranes from oxidative damage . 15
Vitamin K Vitamin K , particularly K2 , is involved in calcium transport , 72 calcium homeostasis , 73 is essential for coagulation 74 and production of
74 , 75
prothrombin and coagulation factors , prevents calcium deposition in the lining of blood vessel walls , 72 synthesis of matrix Gla protein , 72 , 75 , 76 production of osteocalcin , 75 improves cardiometabolic health , 77 and is necessary for normal bone metabolism . 74
Coenzyme Q10 Coenzyme Q10 is involved in mitochondrial energetics , 78 , 79 antioxidant action , 78-81 reducing inflammation . 81 improving vasodilation . 80 Coenzyme Q10 improves fatigue in people with fibromyalgia , 82 and improves exercise capacity . 83 It also reduces statin-related fatigue . 82 A 2019 systematic review of coenzyme Q10 supplementation on fatigue found that coenzyme Q10 had significant beneficial effects on fatigue status among healthy people and people suffering from fibromyalgia , statinrelated fatigue , and multiple sclerosis . 82
Lipoic acid Lipoic acid is an antioxidant . 84-86 Additionally , it has been found to increase the effectiveness of other
86 , 87 antioxidants such as glutathione . Lipoic acid acts as an essential cofactor for mitochondrial enzymes . 84-86
Omega-3 Omega-3 is involved in eicosanoid metabolism , 88 , 89 cell membrane phospholipid composition , 88 , 89 and in the improvement of cell membrane function . 89 Omega-3 has been found to reduce depression , 90 , 91 stress , 90 anxiety , 90 and inflammation . 89 The cardiovascular benefits of omega-3 include improving lipid profile , 88 , 89 reducing platelet aggregation 89 , 92 and coagulation , 93 along with lowering the risk of cardiovascular
94 , 95 disease .
Calcium Calcium is involved in the mineralisation of bone , 96 structural components of bones and teeth , 97 essential for bone rigidity , 98 modulation of the differentiation , proliferation , and maturation of keratinocytes and fibroblasts , 99 regulation of muscle contraction , 97 , 100 enzyme regulation , 97 coagulation 99 and blood clotting , 97 wound healing , 99 signal transduction , 97 and cell signalling , 99 , 100 including extracellular signalling and intracellular second messenger for keratinocytes and fibroblasts . 99
Chromium Chromium is involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates , 17 , 18 19 , 20
glucose , lipids , 17 , 18 , 20 protein , 17 and insulin . 20 Chromium increases the efficiency of insulin . 17 Chromium has been found to
128 | vol29 | no3 | JATMS