Vitamin A Vitamin A plays an essential role in both cell-mediated and humoral antibody responses . 16 , 45 Vitamin A is involved with the activation of retinoic acid receptors , leading to the proliferation of lymphocytes . 45 It supports a Th2-mediated anti-inflammatory cytokine profile . 16
Vitamin B1 Vitamin B1 ( Thiamine ) is involved in energy metabolism , 10 , 11 the metabolism of glucose , 46 mitochondrial metabolism of glucose , 13 Kreb ’ s cycle activity , 10 immune system activation , 11 cell signalling , 11 metabolism of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine , 13 nerve structure and function , 47 is essential for nerve conduction and excitability , 48 cellmembrane dynamics , 11 and modulates cognitive performance . 49 Vitamin B1 is beneficial for fatigue , 13 weakness , 13 peripheral neuropathy , 47 irritability , 13
10 , 13 , 47 and memory impairments .
Vitamin B2 Vitamin B2 ( Riboflavin ) is essential for energy metabolism , 15 normal cell function and growth , 15 and the normal functioning of the nervous , endocrine , cardiovascular , and immune systems . 31 It is involved in the normal functioning of glutathione reductase . 31 Vitamin B2 is involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates , amino acids , and lipids and the metabolism of vitamins , such as the conversion of vitamin B6 and folic acid into their active coenzyme form . 15
Vitamin B3 Vitamin B3 ( Nicotinamide , Nicotinic acid , Nicotinamide riboside ) plays a
12 , 13
significant role in energy metabolism , modulation of inflammation , 12-14 DNA metabolism , 12 , 13 gene expression 12 and differentiation , 12 12 , 13
and cell signalling , reduces oxidative stress , 12 , 14 triglyceride levels , 50 lipid peroxidation , 14 and insulin secretion , 12 and improves liver health 14 and the metabolism and conversion of folate to tetrahydrofolate . 13 Vitamin
12 , 13
B3 assists in controlling depression , anxiety , 13 memory issues , 13 headache , 12 elevated cholesterol , 14 dermatitis , 12 and diarrhoea . 12 In a case-control study , nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate ( NADPH ) concentrations in the serum of participants with chronic fatigue syndrome averaged 8.0 ± 1.4 ( SD ) nmol / mL . In contrast , those in the healthy control group averaged 10.8 ± 0.8 ( SD ) nmol / mL . Serum NADPH was directly correlated with serum Coenzyme Q10 levels . 2
Vitamin B5 Vitamin B5 ( Pantothenic acid ) is involved in energy metabolism , 13 triggers immune cells to produce cytokines , 51 and is a precursor of coenzyme A . 13 , 51 , 52 It is involved in the synthesis of cholesterol , phospholipids , fatty acids , and amino acids . 13 The uses of Vitamin B5 include reducing stress , 51 fatigue , 51 , 52 malaise , 52 depression , 51 headache , 51 and numbness and tingling in the extremities , 13 and improving wound healing . 51
Vitamin B6 Vitamin B6 ( Pyridoxine ) is involved in
15 , 53
the metabolism of one-carbon units , trans-sulphuration , 53 metabolism of protein , carbohydrates and lipids , in gluconeogenesis , metabolism of homocysteine , neurological development , and formation of haemoglobin . 15 Pyridoxal-5-phosphate ( PLP ) plays an important role in the metabolism of neurotransmitters such as serotonin , dopamine , glutamate , and gammaaminobutyric acid ( GABA ). 53 Vitamin B6 supports a Th1 cytokine-mediated immune response and modulates immune cell function . 16
Folate Folate ( folic acid , folinic acid , 54 active forms methylfolate ( calcium‐l‐methylfolate 55 and ( 6S ) ‐5‐methyltetrahydrofolic acid glucosamine 55 )) is essential for normal healthy growth and development , 56 plays a critical role in cell growth and division , 57 56 , 58-60
the synthesis of DNA , RNA , and proteins , 56 and the synthesis of purine and pyrimidine . 15 , 57 It is involved in amino acid metabolism 15 and is required for critical enzymatic reactions . 15 It is involved in one-carbon metabolism , 56-58 , 60-63 57 , 61
methylation , DNA repair , 58 15 , 60
DNA methylation , and re-methylation of homocysteine to
57 , 61 , 64 methionine .
Vitamin B12 Vitamin B12 ( Cobalamin , Methylcobalamin ) is essential for the synthesis and regulation of DNA , 15 , 65 cell metabolism , 15 normal synthesis of purines and pyrimidines , 15 blood cell formation , 66 fatty acid synthesis , 15 myelin synthesis , 66 normal functioning of the nervous system , 66 homocysteine metabolism , 66 and energy production . 15 It supports a Th1 cytokine-mediated immune response . 16
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