Summer 2022 · Torch: U.S. · ROME: FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE
14
ROME: FROM
TO
Republic
Republic
Empire
Empire
by Nayan Shankaran
The Episcopal Academy
PAJCL
During the early stages of the Roman Republic, agriculture was an integral aspect of the Roman way of life. Owning a personal plot of land was rewarding, and landowners became wealthy nobles. Some of these nobles later formed the "Council of Elders," who laid the foundations for the Senate. The Senate was a body of legislators selected among the elite families that controlled the Republic. They were the center of power, made policy, and governed. The Senate regulated the two consuls, who were the chief executives of Rome. One handled domestic affairs, while one dealt with foreign expansion. Despite the Republic not being a modern democracy, it also included Assemblies, which were made up of male citizens who had the ability to legislate and vote. However, there was one problem — the poor classes were overshadowed by the upper classes. This issue threatened the existence of the Republic. The Roman Republic was a government of the people, but due to the conflict between the classes, rapid territorial expansion, and monopolization of the leaders’ political power, the Republic transformed into a military dictatorship, which led to its rise as an empire.
The Roman Republic was divided into two classes, the patricians and the plebeians, who had tensions due to unequal privileges that separated them. The patricians were wealthy nobles, landowners, and merchants, and the plebeians were the common people who made up the majority of the population. The plebeians felt that they were being treated unfairly, and that they did not have equal rights and opportunities as the patricians. Their resentment spurred the
Conflict of the Orders, a series of conflicts between both groups. In light of these conflicts, the Twelve Tables of Roman Law were published to create order in the Roman judicial system, and they contained laws which granted plebeians legal rights. For example, Table VIII decrees, "If a patron defrauds a client he shall be accursed." This table, among several other of the Roman Republic’s laws, was designed to protect the plebeians by allowing them a fair trial and prevent the patricians from taking advantage of them. However, social unrest between the classes remained a theme during this period. Military duties led farmers away from their land to represent the Republic. In the farmers’ absence, wealthy individuals found ways to manipulate and exploit the situation, eventually taking over their farms and building large estates called latifundia on their property. Many peasants lost their farms, and this led to a further division of wealth, which brought even more unrest between the classes under the Republic. This social conflict was one of the reasons for the failure of the Republic and ushered an opportunity for a new government. The change to a more centralized authority would limit the patricians’ power, so the plebeians would not be neglected, and stability would be achieved, diminishing the strife between the classes.
Towards the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious Consul and General Julius Caesar became its dictator and pursued rapid expansion, but he conquered more territory than the Republic could handle. The senators believed that Caesar was too powerful and undermined the Senate, so they orchestrated his assassination. Over the course of Caesar’s short reign, the Roman Republic spanned all across Europe and even extended to North Africa. Increased wars between Rome and the neighboring regions, resulting from the excessive expansion, contributed to the Republic’s collapse. Such a vast Roman Republic could not be sustained, as it needed a strong, centralized government for security and upkeep, so it transitioned to another stage of authority.
Augustus, the first emperor, restructured the Roman Republic into a military dictatorship called the Principate by monopolizing his political authority. As the ruler of the Principate, he called himself princeps ("first among equals") to conceal his true role as a military dictator. Augustus’ cunning enabled him to attain the utmost authority for a long period of time, as opposed to Caesar who boasted his supremacy. In order to further maintain stability, Augustus created the Equite class to bridge the gap between the merchants and the senatorial class where the majority of the wealth lay. This action allowed him to have centralized governing authority, taking power away from the Senate and the people's Assemblies. During his successful reign, Augustus conquered Egypt, parts of the Middle East, and central Europe. Discussing the Roman Empire during the time of Augustus’ emperorship, Cnaeus Julius Agricola once wrote, "These Gauls and Germans, and, I blush to say, these Britons, who, though they lend their lives to support a stranger’s rule, have been its enemies longer than its subjects, you cannot imagine to be bound by fidelity and affection." His statement shows the dedication of the Roman Empire to conquer and subjugate all of its rivals and flaunt its power at all costs. In order to rule its far-reaching lands, the Empire needed military might and one ambitious leader because it could not merely rely on blind loyalty to Rome from its conquered subjects, such as the Gauls, Germans, and Britons. By asserting their superiority through conquest and controlling their rivals, the future Roman emperors were also able to retain their dictatorial position at the apex of the Empire.
Rome’s government experienced a transformation from a Republic to military dictatorship due to social conflicts, military conquests, and the ability of Emperor Augustus to monopolize his political power, which set a precedent for subsequent emperors. Through this transition and the maintenance of stability and dominance during its military dictatorship, the Roman Empire experienced Pax Romana (“Roman Peace”), its golden age. Pax Romana enabled vast Romanization because people were able to transport goods and ideas into other lands via protected, durable roads. As a result, Latin language and Roman culture became much more prevalent throughout the western Mediterranean, and the Roman Empire gained more influence in those areas. Despite the subject peoples not being forced to Romanize, many chose to learn Latin and follow the Roman lifestyle themselves in order to earn access to a citizenship in the Empire, along with financial and legal opportunities and support.
If Rome had not shifted from an overwhelmed Republic to a prosperous military dictatorship, it would not have been able to have such a lasting influence on the ancient and modern worlds in government, culture, and language.
resentment spurred the Conflict of the Orders, a series of conflicts between both groups. In light of these conflicts, the Twelve Tables of Roman Law were published to create order in the Roman judicial system, and they contained laws which granted plebeians legal rights. For example, Table VIII decrees, "If a patron defrauds a client he shall be accursed." This table, among several other of the Roman Republic’s laws, was designed to protect the plebeians by allowing them a fair trial and prevent the patricians from taking advantage of them. However, social unrest between the classes remained a theme during this period. Military duties led farmers away from their land to represent the Republic. In the farmers’ absence, wealthy individuals found ways to manipulate and exploit the situation, eventually taking over their farms and building large estates called latifundia on their property. Many peasants lost their farms, and this led to a further division of wealth, which brought even more unrest between the classes under the Republic. This social conflict was one of the reasons for the failure of the Republic and ushered an opportunity for a new government. The change to a more centralized authority would limit the patricians’ power, so the plebeians would not be neglected, and stability would be achieved, diminishing the strife between the classes.
Towards the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious Consul and General Julius Caesar became dictator and pursued rapid expansion, but he conquered more territory than the Republic could handle. The senators believed that Caesar was too powerful and undermined the Senate, so they orchestrated his assassination. Over the course of Caesar’s short reign, the Roman Republic spanned all across Europe and even extended to North Africa. Increased wars between Rome and the neighboring regions, resulting from the excessive expansion, contributed to the Republic’s collapse. Such a vast Roman Republic could not be sustained, as it needed a strong, centralized government for security and upkeep, so it transitioned to another stage of authority.
Augustus, the first emperor, restructured the Roman Republic into a military dictatorship called the Principate by monopolizing his political authority. As the ruler of the Principate, he called himself princeps ("first among equals") to conceal his true role as a military dictator. Augustus’ cunning enabled him to attain the utmost authority for a long period of time, as opposed to Caesar who boasted his supremacy. In order to further maintain stability, Augustus created the Equite class to bridge the gap between the merchants and the senatorial class where the majority of the wealth lay. This action allowed him to have centralized governing authority, taking power away from the Senate and the people's Assemblies. During his successful reign, Augustus conquered Egypt, parts of the Middle East, and central Europe. Discussing the Roman Empire during the time of Augustus’ emperorship, Cnaeus Julius Agricola once wrote, "These Gauls and Germans, and, I blush to say, these Britons, who, though they lend their lives to support a stranger’s rule, have been its enemies longer than its subjects, you cannot imagine to be bound by fidelity and affection." His statement shows the dedication of the Roman Empire to conquer and subjugate all of its rivals and flaunt its power at all costs. In order to rule its far-reaching lands, the Empire needed military might and one ambitious leader because it could not merely rely on blind loyalty to Rome from its conquered subjects, such as the Gauls, Germans, and Britons. By asserting their superiority through conquest and controlling their rivals, the future Roman emperors were also able to retain their dictatorial position at the apex of the Empire.
Rome’s government experienced a transformation from a Republic to military dictatorship due to social conflicts, military conquests, and the ability of Emperor Augustus to monopolize his political power, which set a precedent for subsequent emperors. Through this transition and the maintenance of stability and dominance during its military dictatorship, the Roman Empire experienced Pax Romana (“Roman Peace”), its golden age. Pax Romana enabled vast Romanization because people were able to transport goods and ideas into other lands via protected, durable roads. As a result, Latin language and Roman culture became much more prevalent throughout the western Mediterranean, and the Roman Empire gained more influence in those areas. Despite the subject peoples not being forced to Romanize, many chose to learn Latin and follow the Roman lifestyle themselves in order to earn access to a citizenship in the Empire, along with financial and legal opportunities and support.
If Rome had not shifted from an overwhelmed Republic to a prosperous military dictatorship, it would not have been able to have such a lasting influence on the ancient and modern worlds in government, culture, and language.