The Missouri Reader Vol. 37, Issue 2 | Page 67

positive relationships that extend beyond the
classroom walls.
Learning is social. Street (2003) supports
this statement with his research in New
Literacy Studies, stating that, “literacy is a
social practice, not simply a technical and
neutral skill; that it is always embedded in
socially constructed epistemolo gical
principles,” (p. 77). Social interactions are
the foundation for learning, stimulating,
physical health, and mental health. Dyson
(1999) states, “Through their social actions,
including their words, they establish their
identities as knowledgeable people socially
included friends, and powerful actors; and,
embedded in their actions is knowledge, not
only about cultural texts, but also about the
larger society…” (p. 326). Teacher’s language
plays a large role in building respectful
learning communities. The first step in
creating this community is by inviting
students to be a part of the community by
building on the “we”. Teachers must refer to
the class as a “we” that sets goals and works
together to achieve those goals. Johnson
finds that reading and writing are natural
venues for learning about others, so teachers
can use this avenue to build the “we” (pg. 66).
Teachers can use language such as, “Any
compliments?” or “How do you think he
might feel about that?” to increase student
awareness of others. Using these questioning
techniques invites children to collaborate and
build a social imagination in which children
can see themselves in others and vice versa.
As can be seen in my introduction to
these books by Johnston, they present a
number of ways in which language can create
and foster rich learning environments. In the
following sections, I continue with my
discussion of the books through the language
and representational practices of
assessments and the current policies and
practices of high stakes testing.
Language and representational practices
of assessment
“Assessment is a social practice that
involves noticing, representing, and
responding to children’s literate

behaviors, rendering them meaningful for
particular purposes and audience”
(Johnston and Rogers, 2001).
“What is assessed is what gets taught” is a
common theme in education. Not only what
is assessed, but also how it is assessed. In his
books, Johnston focuses on using language to
help teach students in a democratic learning
community. Democracy “has to do with the
way persons attend to one another, care for
one another, and interact with one another. It
has to do with choices and alternatives, with
the capacity to look at things as though they
could be otherwise,” (Greene, 1985 p. 3). The
language used in the classroom can foster this
democratic learning, and create learning
communities that are caring and respectful.
Children learn best in a social learning
environment that is supportive and
encourages risk taking, and learning through
discussion. Reading and writing foster
learning about another perspective and helps
build a students social imagination. By
encouraging social interaction and thinking
together, students are creating what Mercer
(200) calls an “intermental development
zone” where the collective knowledge of the
group is able to achieve things that the
individual cannot. This is a more social view
of Vygotsky’s (1978) zone of proximal
development, and over time the IDZ makes it
possible for individual knowledge to grow
and accomplish more complex tasks.
While students work together to build
social imagination, teachers must focus on the
process and effort-oriented feedback. The
language teachers use should draw students
attention to the process in which they are
problem solving. Children are being pushed
to verbalize the process, internalizing the
successes, and in turn building a democratic
learning environment. Sharing successes and
feedback improves student understanding
and expands a student’s idea about what is
possible. Johnston’s ideas about a democratic
learning environment and productive
feedback are forms of representational
practices of assessment. If what is assessed is
©The Missouri Reader, 37 (2) p.67