explained that “Because there are limits to how much information children can learn about a word in a
single exposure, word learning usually takes place in small steps over time” (p. 207).
Vocabulary Learning Through Context and Direct Instruction
Vocabulary instruction only accounts for an estimated 400 of the 4000 words learned in a school
year (Greenwood & Flanigan, 2007; Nagy & Anderson, 1984). Where are students learning the remaining
3,600 words? The NICHD (2000) stated “the scientific research on vocabulary instruction reveals that (a)
most vocabulary is learned indirectly, and (b) some vocabulary must be taught directly” (p. 35). Vocabulary
learned indirectly is derived from three facets, which include: being around adult conversations, being read
to, and extensive reading (NICHD, 2000). Greenwood and Flanigan (2007) indicated, “on average, 90% of
words are learned through repeated, meaningful encounters in direct experience” (p. 249). However,
learning words from written context is assigned the bulk of word learning for lack of a better explanation.
As Beck and McKeown (1991) posited:
research spanning several decades has failed to uncover strong evidence that word meanings are
routinely acquired from context. It seems that the role of context in vocabulary acquisition is
prominent by default, as it is well accepted that its closest contender for explaining vocabulary
growth, direct instruction, is not adequate to account for the vocabulary children learn (p. 799).
Beck, McKeown, and Kucan, (2002) stated, “written context lacks many of the features of oral
language that support learning new word meanings, such as intonation, body language, and shared physical
surroundings. As such, the text is a far less effective vehicle for learning new words than oral language” (p.
3).
Greenwood and Flanigan (2007) pointed out that because so many words are learned in everyday
encounters, teachers should use this avenue for aiding direct instruction. Furthermore, direct vocabulary
instruction is necessary to compliment word-learning from context. As Spencer and Guillaume (2006)
stated, “children who have poor vocabularies not only may not understand much of the oral and written
language they are exposed to, but they will be less able to learn new words” (p. 206).
Prior Knowledge and Vocabulary Instruction
Spencer and Guillaume (2006) explained that prior knowledge is interconnected with word learning.
They contend “how well a word is understood is related to how much background knowledge the person
has about the domain in which the word is used” (p. 207). Koeller (1981) suggested that in order to build
upon students’ vocabulary, it is best to engage interest and curiosity in unknown words and to group and
organize words already known. Moreover, students can benefit from the perceptions and viewpoints of
other classmates, and teachers’ grouping and classifications of words (Koeller, 1981).
Bos and Anders (1990) studied the effect interactive vocabulary strategies that engaged prior
knowledge have on recall of words and comprehension. The results of the study indicated students
benefited from interactive instruction and engaging prior knowledge more than definition instruction. Bos
and Anders found that in all assessments, students who were instructed using the interactive concept
strategies scored higher on the follow-up test after the post test, this indicated that interactive strategies
produce a long term effect on comprehension when compared to definition instruction with memorization.
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