The Journal of Animal Consciousness Vol 1, Issue 2 Vol 1 Issue 2 | Page 35

isolation, experimentation or similar experiences.

number of diagnosable psychological disorders,

They applied a slightly modified species-specific set

from 106 in 1952 to 365 in 1994 when the DSM-V

of the DSM-V criteria for PTSD and major

was published (Levine, 2013). Indeed, according to

depression to these reports and found that a small

Maddux and Winstead (2012) psychopathological

number of chimpanzees met the DSM-V criteria for

diagnoses are based on constructs founded on

PTSD and depression (Ferdowsian et al., 1985).

societal and cultural norms.

Interestingly, the same criteria were administered to

social constructs are inevitably subjective rather than

populations living in wild sites in Africa and in

scientific (Maddux & Winstead, 2012). Classifying

sanctuaries (those in sanctuaries had been victims of

behavior as absolute variables of adaptability or

experimentation, orphanage, illegal seizure or

maladaptability (normal and abnormal) does not

violent human conflict) (Ferdowsian et al., 1985).

constitute the totality of a disorder (Maddux &

They found that 58% of the chimpanzees living in

Winstead, 2012).

sanctuaries met the set of alternative criteria for

classifications are inadequate at distinguishing

depression compared to 3% from the wild

exclusivity between one disorder and another

population (Ferdowsian et al., 1985). Furthermore,

(Maddux & Winstead, 2012).

44% of sanctuary chimpanzees met the set of

DSM provides a valuable stepping point for the

alternative criteria for PTSD compared with .5% of

development of species specific criteria to elucidate

wild chimpanzees (Ferdowsian et al., 1985).

features of animal interiority.

The

findings are compelling, suggesting chimpanzees

Consequently, these

More specifically, these

Nonetheless, the

To further explore these ideas establishing

with traumatic histories indeed do show evidence for

whether animals possess emotions is key. The

mood disorders including PTSD and depression

web dictionary (2015) states an emotion is “an

(Ferdowsian et al., 1985). Nonetheless, classifying

affective state of consciousness in which joy, sorrow,

disorders per the DSM has some serious limitations.

fear, hate or the like is experienced as distinguished

Historically, the DSM was created by the American

from cognitive and volitional states of

Psychiatric Association as a diagnostic tool for

consciousness.” As a horse adopter it would be

inpatients with severe psychiatric and neurological

untrue to say that my horse does not have emotions,

disorders (APA, 2015). Essentially, it was devised

however, this again is cons