A Planetary Perspective of Earth Systems Sustainability
Because milpa farmers depend upon the ecosystem for their basic needs , whole communities are impacted from system change ; thus , there are implications for community food and livelihood insecurity from climate change impacts ( Lozada , 2014 ). “ The impacts of climate change are expected to threaten the sustainability of social , economic , and ecological systems ” in Belize ( Richardson , 2009 , p . 8 ). Largescale climate and ecosystem changes in southern Belize have distinct impacts on the environment , economy , food security , public health , culture , and other factors in Belizean milpa communities ( Chicas , Omine , & Ford , 2016 ; Drexler , 2020 ); these impacts perpetuate a cycle of environmental degradation , poverty , and vulnerability to climate and ecosystem changes ( Wildcat , 2013 ).
The Milpa Farming System
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milpa is a small-scale shifting cultivation system of subsistence farming ( Downey , 2009 ; Nigh & Diemont , 2013 ) traditionally involving slash-and-burn and / or slashand-mulch practices ( Johnston , 2003 ; Thurston 1997 ). The milpa is a significant aspect of Maya culture and tradition as Maya identity , ceremony , community , and livelihood are all rooted in the milpa ( De Frece & Poole , 2008 ; Falkowski , Chankin , Diemont , & Pedian , 2019 ). Milpa crop production is used for subsistence and selling at local markets ( Downey , 2009 ; Emch , 2003 ; Levasseur & Olivier , 2000 ; Nigh & Diemont , 2013 ). Milpa practices include clearing small areas of forest to plant a diversity of crops — primarily corn , beans , and squash — on nutrient-rich soil ( Emch , 2003 ; Mt . Pleasant , 2016 ).
For centuries , the traditional practice of milpa farming has been sustainable and reliable as the major food and livelihood source for Maya milpa communities in southern Belize ( Altieri & Toledo , 2011 ; Benitez , Fornoni , Garcıa-Barrios , & López , 2014 ; Ford & Nigh , 2016 ; Nigh & Diemont , 2013 ) as farmers allow areas to regenerate to a mosaic of forest succession stages and crop diversity ( Daniels , Painter , & Southworth , 2008 ; Isakson , 2007 ; Mt . Pleasant , 2016 ; Shal , 2002 ). In the last 50 years , however , the slash-and-burn aspect of milpa farming has become less reliable and less sustainable due to hydroclimatic changes ( i . e ., droughts , flooding , hurricanes ), forest loss , pests and crop disease , soil degradation , and social factors such as poverty , population growth , land tenure , marginalization , and other factors ( De Frece & Poole , 2008 ; Downey , 2009 ; Drexler , 2020 ; Levasseur & Olivier , 2000 ; Lozada , 2014 ; New Agriculturist , 2005 ; Shal , 2002 ; Steinberg , 1998 ).
Planetary Benefits of Climate-smart Practices on Milpa Farms in Belize
Small-scale farms practicing climate-smart agriculture can have a planetary-scale system benefit , including to global climate change and related impacts ( Altieri , 2008 ). Climate-smart agriculture ( CSA ) practices aim to “ increase productivity in an en-
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