K . M . Thabayneh and R . J . Shawamreh : Radioprotection 2024 , 59 ( 4 ), 306 – 316 307
levels , water saturation of the medium , and other variables like micro-cracks in bedrocks , rainfall , air temperature , and surface winds . Due to its low mobility and short half-life , radon-222 primarily diffuses from a shallow distance below the measuring device . In areas with slow diffusive flow , this distance is typically around 2 meters beneath the soil surface . Understanding these complex interactions is crucial for assessing radon-222 exposure risks and implementing effective mitigation strategies ( Alharbi and Abbady , 2013 ; Hatif and Muttaleb , 2016 ; Ahmed and Abdulameer , 2019 ).
The health risks associated with radon-222 primarily arise from the inhalation and ingestion of its short-lived decay products . While the majority of inhaled radon-222 is expelled and does not accumulate in the respiratory system , a small fraction can reach the inner regions of the lungs . In these areas , radon-222 can damage the DNA in sensitive lung tissue , potentially leading to cancer . Furthermore , suspended radon- 222 decay products in the air can be inhaled during breathing , entering the respiratory system . Due to their short half-life , these decay products rapidly undergo decay within the lungs . During this process , alpha particles are emitted , depositing a significant amount of energy into vulnerable lung cells and posing various health risks . Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for assessing the potential health impact of radon-222 exposure and implementing measures to mitigate associated risks ( Jibiri and Esen , 2011 ; Nada and Jaafar , 2015 ; Sudhir et al ., 2016 ).
The primary goal of this paper is to quantify radon-222 concentrations , radium contents , and exhalation rates in soil samples collected from the northern region of the West Bank . Through these measurements , the study aims to provide insights into potential risks associated with radon-222 and to evaluate whether further investigations or mitigation measures are warranted in the region . This research contributes to a better understanding of the local radon-222 scenario and forms the basis for informed decisions regarding public health and safety .
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Study area
A total of 40 soil samples from the surface were collected from various locations within the regions of Jenin , Tulkarm , and Tubas governorates , situated in the northern part of the West Bank in Palestine ( Fig . 1 ). In Jenin governorate , the samples were obtained from areas such as Ya ’ bad , Qabatiya , Zababida , Meithalun , Hadad , and Salem . In Tulkarm governorate , the collection zones included Qaffin , Baqa asharqiya , An Nazla al-Gharbiya , Zeita , Attil , Deir al-Ghusun , Jarushiya , Irtah , Anabta , Kafr al-Labad , Shwaika , and Iktaba . Lastly , in Tubas governorate , the samples were collected from Al ’ Aqaba , Tubas-Gore Zone .
Indeed , the northern region of the West Bank holds strategic importance as it serves as a central nexus connecting three distinct areas . Geographically , the West Bank is primarily characterized by mountain ranges oriented from north to south , with average elevations ranging from 200 to 1020 meters . These mountainous terrains gradually descend eastward , leading to the low-lying rift valley where the Jordan River and the Dead Sea are located . It ’ s important to note that the elevated areas in the western section of West bank give rise to streams that flow westward , ultimately reaching the Mediterranean Sea ( Hejaz et al ., 2020 ).
The West Bank encompasses a land area of 5655 km 2 , and as of the end of 2023 , it had an estimated population of around 3,464,858 people ( PCBS , 2021 ). In the specific analysis area within the northern part of the West Bank , it includes districts such as Jenin with a population of 359,934 individuals , Tulkarm with 216,586 individuals , and Tubas and the northern valleys with 68,779 individuals . These figures reflect the approximate population distribution in the respective districts as of the specified time ( Hejaz et al ., 2020 ; PCBS , 2021 ).
The West Bank is predominantly characterized by a Mediterranean climate . This climate type is typically associated with mild temperatures and ample rainfall . The northern regions of the West Bank largely experience the Mediterranean climate , while Tubas , located on the eastern slopes , is influenced by a semi-arid climate due to its distance from the marine effects . The annual average temperatures in the West Bank vary between 17 ° C and 32 ° C . These temperature ranges are typical for the Mediterranean climate and contribute to the overall moderate and comfortable weather conditions in the region ( Ghodieh , 2019 ).
2.2 Samples collection and preparation
Every sample was collected using a template measuring 25 cm by 30 cm with a depth of 5 cm , specifically from the surface layer within an area ( Dabayneh et al ., 2008 ). Before collection , meticulous care was taken to eliminate the outer layer of the soil , which could potentially harbor diverse wastes and impurities . Roughly 1 kg of soil from each sampling point was gathered and stored in a plastic bag . The selected method for soil analysis and testing was designed to ensure uniformity and streamline the collection of a sufficient quantity of soil samples ( Ferreira and Pecequilo , 2011 ).
After the removal of any foreign materials , such as stones or gravel , the soil samples underwent a thorough mixing process to achieve homogeneity . Following the mixing step , all the samples were sieved using a mesh sieve with a 1 mm aperture size . This sieving process ensured uniformity and eliminated any larger particles from the samples . Once sieved , the soil samples were placed in a hot air oven and dried at a temperature of 110 ° C for a period of 12 h . This drying process effectively removed all moisture content from the samples , ensuring material homogeneity and stability . After the drying process , the samples were weighed to determine their mass accurately . This step allowed for precise measurements and analysis . Finally , the weighed and prepared samples were securely stored for further examination and testing ( Dabayneh and Mashal et al ., 2008 ; Thabayneh , 2018 ).
2.3 Dosimeters preparation
To measure the concentration of radon-222 and the exhalation rates in the soil samples , we utilized the can technique . This technique involved sealing the samples in cylindrical containers constructed from a suitable type of plastic , specifically high-density polyethylene ( HDPE ). The containers had dimensions of 6.5 cm in diameter and 12 cm in