S. Ito et al.: Radioprotection 2025, 60( 3), 211 – 220 217
Table 4.( continued).
Artificial Intelligence Chatbot Web Search
Normal level 6th Grade Level ChatGPT-3.5 Copilot Gemini ChatGPT-3.5 Copilot Gemini Google n % AR n % AR n % AR n % AR n % AR n % AR n % AR
14 The material ' s visual aids have clear titles or captions
15 The material uses illustrations and photographs that are clear and uncluttered
16 The material uses simple tables with short and clear row and column headings a
– – – – – – 60 42.0 –
– – – – – – 46 90.2 –
Actionability
17 The material clearly identifies at least one action the user can take
18 The material addresses the user directly when describing actions
19 The material breaks down any action into manageable, explicit steps
20 The material provides a tangible tool whenever it could help the user take action
21 The material provides simple instructions or examples of how to perform calculations a
22 The material explains how to use the charts, graphs, tables, or diagrams to take actions a
23 The material uses visual aids whenever they could make it easier to act on the instructions
2 6.7 0.7 0 0.0 �1.2 4 13.8 2.7 1 3.4 �0.2 1 3.2 �0.3 3 10.7 1.8 4 2.3 �1.8
0 0.0 �0.9 0 0.0 �0.9 2 6.9 1.8 0 0.0 �0.9 1 3.2 0.4 2 7.1 1.8 3 1.7 �0.7 0 0.0 �1.0 0 0.0 �1.0 4 13.8 3.7 0 0.0 �1.0 1 3.2 0.1 1 3.6 0.3 4 2.3 �0.6
0 0.0 – 0 0.0 – 0 0.0 – 0 0.0 – 0 0.0 – 0 0.0 – 0 0.0 –
– – – – – – 0 0.0 –
– – – – – – 0 0.0 –
0 0.0 �0.3 0 0.0 �0.3 0 0.0 �0.3 0 0.0 �0.3 0 0.0 �0.3 0 0.0 �0.3 1 0.6 1.0
a Including not applicable to the response method; AR = adjusted residuals; Significant difference if adjusted residuals are greater than or less than 1. 96( p < 0. 05).