Spectres of Fear 39
unambiguous threats of any magnitude . As a result , we frequently generate inadequate and uncompelling evidence in an attempt to find threats , or to assert that enemies , adversaries , or competitors exist , or will exist . ( 1997 , 65 ).
The origins of this cultural paranoia can be traced back to the 1850 ’ s during the Australian gold rushes in Victoria , which attracted thousands of Chinese migrants . Fearing further Asian arrivals into Australia , the colonial authorities “ introduced restrictions on Chinese immigration .” 13 In 1901 and 1903 the new federal government restricted non-European migration . 14 By this stage , the press viewed Muslims living in Australia as morally reprobate ( Saniotis 2003 ). For instance , R . S . Ross , editor of the Barrier Truth wrote an article on March 13 , 1903 entitled “ The Afghan Menace ,” where he deemed Afghan Muslims to be sexually depraved , brutal and grossly superstitious , and compared to them birds of prey ( Cleland 2002 , 4 ). 15
Just as its historic counterpart , the contemporary Australian media has tended to act as gatekeeper in matters of national security . In his book entitled Dog Whistle Politics and Journalism , Australian journalist Peter Manning accuses the Australian press of engaging in “ dog-whistle journalism ”— the practice of manipulating certain words , phrases and images in order to distort reality . Manning ’ s book analyses the news coverage of four major Australian newspapers , ( Sydney Morning Herald , Sun-Herald , Daily Telegraph , Sunday Telegraph ) twelve months prior and after September 11 . Using statistical and literary analyses of more than 12,000 articles Manning concludes that nearly 60 % of reporting of Muslims and Arabs associates them with terror and
violence . 16
The practice of conflating Arab / Muslim / Terrorist has been so widespread throughout the Australian media that it has coaxed Muslim Australians to demonstrate their “ loyalty ” to Australia . As Victoria Mason , citing James Conner argues , “ loyalty is indicative of emotional links to spaces and places ” ranging from the personal to national levels ( Mason 2004 , 241 ). It is when spaces and places are perceived to be under threat by an ambiguous Other that society often deploys a process of witch hunting . In an opinion article I had written in 2002,1 call this process “ rituals of allegiance ” which “ are strategically directed to measure . . . the level of a person ’ s ” “ Australianess .” 17 Such rituals have ranged from Australian Muslims being asked by the media whether they would wage war against Australia , to the media demanding Australian Muslims condemn the actions of Islamist terrorists . Although , Australian Muslim organisations have publicly denounced Islamist terrorism , such actions have not
necessarily dissuaded the media ’ s targeting of Muslims .
Such manoeuvrings reflect the extent to which mainstream media is informed by Samuel Huntington ’ s “ clash of civilisations ” thesis which pits Islam against the West . A leading exponent of this logic is The Australian