B h a k ti
Tradition and the Role of Saint-Philosophers
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spiritual pursuits. With the development of the Charvaka school, other Lokayata
schools, Jainism, and Buddhism (600-500 B.C.), atheist, materialistic, and
naturalistic tendencies became predominant and heterodox philosophies were
common. Popular Indian culture adopted these trends and Vedic ritualistic and
knowledge-based practices lost momentum. By the third century B.C., most of
India was predominantly Buddhist as was popular Indian culture. Epics,
Dharmashastras, and Puranas brought popular Indian culture back to the folds of
Hinduism, and Alvar saint-philosophers and their followers firmed up this
position of Hinduism relative to popular Indian culture. Bhakti tradition
continued modifying and changing, but its impacts on popular Indian culture
were permanent; it diminished the power of Brahmins; brought more
egalitarianism in society; lessened ritualism, orthodoxy, and blind faith in
popular tradition; eliminated many caste, gender, social position, and power
barriers; decreased social and cultural gaps; and enhanced understanding and
unity among the people.
Muslim invaders had been attacking India from the northwest from
about 700 A.D. and later established a Muslim rule in India for several centuries.
Under the impact of their rule and policies, popular tradition changed and
Muslim influences can be clearly seen in the northern and central parts of India
in terms of the lifestyle of the people and their beliefs, customs, manners, and
practices. Once the power of the Muslim rulers declined, the British took over
India and many changes occurred in popular Indian tradition over two centuries
as a result of their policies. During British times, popular Indian tradition started
mimicking the West; Western style of living became common; and speaking
English, formal education, an