HEALTH AND SANITATION
ions. Note that construction that includes new copper
pipe can add copper to water for a time via leaching.
Newly installed CSI systems generally require a period
of time to adjust system output in order to achieve the
desired level of metal ions. Representatives from the
manufacturer are typically involved in on-site start-up
and balancing of the system.
MONITORING FREQUENCY AND LOCATION
Initial monitoring during start-up is critical to ensure the
copper action level in the Lead and Copper Rule is not
exceeded. A facility that is considering installation of
CSI should consult with its primacy agency to determine
a protocol for initial monitoring. During the initiation of
CSI, weekly monitoring with inductively coupled plasma/
mass spectrometry (ICP/MS) (e.g., EPA Method 200.8) or
atomic absorption spectroscopy (e.g. Standard Methods
3111B) can be conducted to determine accurate
levels of copper and silver.* As treatment proceeds,
the frequency of analysis may be reduced, but these
methods remain the only reliable and accurate means to
determine copper and silver concentrations.
Lin et al. (2011b) recommend monitoring copper on a
weekly basis using a field colorimeter kit, and monitoring
silver once every two months by atomic absorption
spectroscopy or the inductively coupled plasma method.
Operational monitoring of copper is generally conducted at
various locations throughout the premise plumbing system
to monitor for process changes in copper concentration
(e.g. high copper concentrations that may be indicative
of improper application, and no detectable copper).
Based on a 1995 survey of 16 hospitals, Stout and Yu
(2003) reported that 94 per cent (15 of 16) of hospitals
conducted routine monitoring for copper and silver ions.
According to the United Kingdom Health and Safety
Executive (2014), both copper and silver levels should
be monitored monthly, or no less than quarterly, at the
same locations within the building, using appropriate
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sampling procedures, and submitted for analysis by
ICP/MS or atomic absorption (HSE, 2014). Sampling
locations will vary in specific buildings and should
include both taps that are frequently and infrequently
used. When appropriate, the facility owner or operator
should work with the primacy agency to determine a
site sampling plan for the water system. First-draw and
flushed samples will often yield different results (Liu et
al., 1994). First-draw sample testing can indicate how
periods of low water flow may affect metal levels given
the water quality conditions found in a specific building,
while flush samples will measure the metal levels in
the main cold or hot water lines feeding individual
taps. Knowledge of how water flows in any particular
building is essential in determining the best monitoring
frequency and locations.
MAINTENANCE NEEDS
The copper- and silver-containing anodes are sacrificial
and should be rehabilitated periodically as they become
smaller, according to the recommendations of the
manufacturer. Anodes can also wear down due to
high shear velocities (Chen et al., 2008). The anodes
typically will develop scale from calcium in all but the
softest waters and should be cleaned by scraping/acid
treatment on a regular basis. Scale build-up reduces the
surface area from which ions can be released, lowering
the ion output. Any time a component of a water system
is opened to the environment for maintenance, such
as scraping, procedures should ensure that the system
components are re-installed in a sanitary condition (i.e.
disinfected).
Regular flushing of water lines (either through the
frequent use of taps or routine weekly flushing) was cited
as a critical factor in maintaining the effectiveness of CSI
systems (Kusnetsov et al., 2001; Liu et al., 1994).
* The National Environmental Methods Index
(https://www.nemi.gov/home/) “is a searchable database that
allows scientists and managers to find and compare analytical and
field methods for all phases of environmental monitoring.” PA
January 2018 Volume 23 I Number 11