so they confirm that the school remains a space for knowledge . Through their professionalism , teachers effectively disappear behind their authoritative discourse , which is primarily directed at the examinations set for their pupils . Moreover , they persuade the students ( and indeed the parents ) that a consensual reading of history is possible 6 . Turning away from this professional habitus to construct an articulation between history and memory depends on having the time and the ability to adopt a certain pedagogical distance – something that seems unlikely given the organization and means available , at least within the French national education system .
Citizenship education is therefore not simply the transmission of a lesson in memory that consolidates the civic dispositions of students who are attentive because their knowledgeable and impassioned teacher makes good use of emotions and identification . This more or less factual or moral content is indeed transmitted , but along with a host of other messages , some of which are reactive , intentional , and significant ( political rejection , emotional support , etc .), and others which have no connection to the content , nor intention , nor even a clear meaning . The school system transmits a range of things that are not always consistent or intentional ; the hidden curriculum , rules of behaviour , educational style , participation practices , the valorization of knowledge , the organization of ideas . It is also the space for the transmission of non-pedagogical learning , insults , love letters , and social skills shared in the playground . Memory transmission at schools takes on its full meaning in these moments where “ noise ”, rules , and “ meaningless talk ” abound . These chaotic encounters can give them great strength , for example when a student who wants to fulfil the expectations of the teacher ( which overlap with those of his or her family environment ) identifies with an eye-witness account of history , and finds fulfilment in this role that brings together academic ,
6 TUTIAUX-GUILLON Nicole ( 2008 ) « Histoire et mémoire , questions à l ’ histoire scolaire ordinaire », dans S . Ernst , Quand les mémoires déstabilisent l ’ école . Mémoire de la Shoah et enseignement , Paris , Institut national de recherche pédagogique . civic , and moral validation . But the proliferation of background noise can also mean that the message – in spite of its clear strength – will not be heard , or will provoke hostility .
So , the importance of this socially embedded dimension of the impact and appropriations of memory policies calls for a shift in the centre of attention . It may not be effective to focus only on the contents , topics and artefacts of memory policies , as has mainly been the case until now . It is necessary to pay at least equal attention to the social situations in which transmission is meant to take place and to the identity and legitimacy of the agents of this transmission . In European societies where schools no longer give the impression of being able to promote social justice and fight economic inequalities , teachers may not be the best actors for ensuring an active and efficient transmission of memory and democratic values . I will take a last example to highlight how taking the social embeddedness of memory policies seriously may be the main challenge for European memory policies today . For a long time now , Europe has organized holiday camps or programmes that bring together adolescents from countries whose memories are conflicting , starting with France and Germany , to help them overcome hostile memories . It would be nice to believe that , in the end , whole societies could be won over to peace and tolerance by the magic of contact between presumed enemies . But , alas , the situation is more complicated .
These young people are not official representatives of their national or community groups ; they are also members of social groups , possibly the recipients of their parents ’ political allegiances , and above all individuals , who take either the side of conflict or friendship in their interactions with others . What is created within the safe space of the camps and programmes is not easily transposed into a society that is deeply divided and belligerent . Friendships constructed in conditions of relative equality are threatened by the everyday experiences of inequality and differences . Sociologists have shown that the criteria for equality are not always satisfied ; the equality found in a
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Observing Memories ISSUE 4