xxxii | The Formation of the Old Testament
EARLY OLD TESTAMENT COLLECTIONS
Likely between 400 – 200 BC, some Jews began more widely to recognize the importance and divine origin of many other prophetic Old Testament Scriptures in addition to the Law of Moses. For example, 2 Kings 17:13 references both the Law and some Prophets:“ The Lord warned Israel and Judah through all his prophets and seers...‘ in accordance with the entire Law that I commanded your ancestors to obey and that I delivered to you through my servants the prophets.’” Although it is unclear which prophets 2 Kings 17:13 refers to, the verse indicates that some prophets were recognized by around 400 BC( compare 2Ki 17:37, where the admonition to keep the law of God is clear).
The Deuterocanonical book of Sirach( also called Ecclesiasticus) identifies the prophets that were influential among the Jews between 200 – 180 BC. Sirach contains a reference to many of Israel’ s heroes, including prophets such as Moses, Nathan, David, Elijah, Elisha, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Job and Nehemiah( Sirach 49:10). Sirach also includes a reference to the book of the Twelve Minor Prophets and Nehemiah( Sirach 49:6,8,10,13). It is unlikely that Sirach would have known of the heroes he listed without being familiar with the books that tell their stories, suggesting that the books that contain these stories were already accepted as authoritative by his lifetime. Thus, by the late third century or early second century BC, the Israelites recognized many( if not most) of the more familiar Old Testament books as Scripture.
The early first-century BC Deuterocanonical text 2 Maccabees records Judas Maccabeus’ actions after the Greek king Antiochus IV Epiphanes’ destroyed many Jewish sacred books and committed other heinous acts, stating:“ Judas also collected all the books that had been lost on account of the war that had come upon us, and they are in our possession. So if you have need of them, send people to get them for you”( 2 Macc 2:14 – 15 nrsv). It is unclear which sacred books 2 Maccabees refers to, but 1 Maccabees 1:56 suggests the collection involved at least the Law:“ The books of the law that they found they tore to pieces and burned with fire”( nrsv). It’ s unknown, though, whether“ books of the law” refers to the Pentateuch( Genesis— Deuteronomy) or to all of the Jewish sacred Scriptures.
It is certain that collections of the Jewish Scriptures were circulating in the land of Israel( Palestine) in the second and first centuries BC; however, it is unknown what writings were included in these collections. All of the books that compose the Hebrew Bible except Esther and Nehemiah were found at Qumran among the Dead Sea Scrolls( dating ca. 250 BC – AD 50). In the Dead Sea Scrolls’ document known as Miqsat Maase Hatorah, the Jewish sacred writings are described as the“ book of Moses, the books of the prophets, and David”( likely a reference to the Psalms). Miqsat Maase Hatorah also references the“ annals of each generation,” which may be a reference to the Historical Books of 1 – 2 Sam uel, 1 – 2 Kings, and 1 – 2 Chron icles. Although the specific books of each of these categories are not identified, Miqsat Maase Hatorah shows that the Scriptures were grouped into specific, authoritative collections.
At the same time, many other religious books besides those that currently make up the Hebrew Bible were read and circulated among Jews( and later Chris tians) during the first centuries BC and AD. The Hebrew Bible writings among the Dead Sea Scrolls were found alongside many additional religious texts: Of the more than 900 manuscripts discovered, about 700 were non-Biblical works.