Figure 3 . Relative results of other environmental impacts of hydrogen production with AWE in different scenarios . The values for current scenario considered as 100 %.
during its conversion to multi-crystalline it is around 470 kg water per kg multi-crystalline . The wastewater generated after manufacturing and installation contains mainly copper and contributes about 20 % to the environmental impact ecotoxicity [ 4 ].
Carcinogenicity indicates the potential estimated rise of disease cases per kg of a substance emitted . Freshwater ecotoxicity measures the toxic effect on freshwater aquatic species in the aquatic ecosystems . The main reason for the increase in both indicators is the expansion of solar PV in electricity production . The manufacturing of solar PV involves mining , extraction and purification processes that use carcinogenic , flammable , corrosive , toxic compounds ( e . g ., hydrochloric acid , nitric acid , isopropanol , ammonia , and selenium hydride ).
Moreover , a significant amount of water is required to produce solar PV . For example , the water consumption during silicon production is around 180 kg water per 1 kg of silicon , and during its conversion to multicrystalline it is around 470 kg water per kg multi-crystalline . The wastewater generated after manufacturing and installation contains mainly copper and contributes about 20 % to the environmental impact ecotoxicity [ 4 ].
Electricity supply in the future
Since the use of electricity is the largest contributor to the environmental impacts of hydrogen production , an interesting possibility would be to change the electricity production ’ s origin . As assumed in 2050 , wind and solar energy are the largest contributors to renewable energy sources in the Netherlands . Therefore , it is interesting to see how the environmental impacts change if the electricity required to produce hydrogen comes from solar PV only ( 100 %), offshore wind only ( 100 %) and mix from solar PV and offshore wind ( 2050 RES scenario ) ( Figure 4 ).
Electricity production from wind turbines has a lower impact than electricity production from solar panels . The electricity from the solar PV is low voltage , implying that further electrical equipment may be necessary to increase the voltage for proper use . Furthermore , the wind potential in the Netherlands is higher than the solar potential , which implies perhaps a higher value in the impact for solar PV .
Electricity produced from offshore wind has better performance , but the expansion of
Figure 4 . Relative results of other environmental impacts of hydrogen production with AWE in different energy sources . Solar PV is 100 %.