Hurricanes have led to significant impacts in coastal communities due to rainfall accumulation , extreme winds , and storm surge . South Carolina experienced an estimated $ 2 Billion in damages in the wake of Florence , including major flooding in the Georgetown area for several weeks ( Stewart and Berg , 2019 ). One of the recent hurricanes to impact South Carolina , Hurricane Dorian in 2019 , produced 6 inches of rainfall and a 3.5 foot storm surge ( NWS , 2019 ). Because the peak storm surge from Dorian occurred during a low tide cycle , significant flooding impacts were avoided , with wind contributing to most of the damages .
Along with the changes in the quantity of water being increased during rainfall events , water quality within aquatic environments can be impacted as well . Ponds on Kiawah Island have experienced fish kills after intense rainfall events in the late summer . The root cause of these kills is difficult to attribute to a single source ; however , reduction in dissolved oxygen and sudden changes in temperature influence fish kills . Lowered dissolved oxygen levels in the aquatic environment significantly impairs fisheries survival and causes evacuations of fish populations in open waters ( Bailey & Secor , 2016 ). This is further impacted by increased salinity levels which decreases the capacity for water to hold onto dissolved oxygen . Some fish species are also intolerant to drastic changes in temperatures , often caused by rainfall events or acute changes in air temperature .
In addition to these factors , other pressing environmental perturbations drive the health of aquatic environments . Pollutants which accumulate in the tissues of aquatic wildlife often bioaccumulate in the tissues of their predators . This further produces negative downstream effects on local wildlife as these pollutants concentrate in higher trophic levels . Excess nutrients in the water column also produce eutrophic conditions which cause the abrupt growth of algae in the water . This can result in the formation of harmful algal blooms , where certain algae can produce strong neurotoxins which are dangerous to humans , pets , and wildlife . Furthermore , dead algae eventually decompose in the water column and contribute to a sharp decrease in dissolved oxygen levels . These effects have not been frequently observed on Kiawah Island , but there is concern about this occurring more frequently in the future .
Changes to seasonal temperature regimes have also been shown to cause range shifts in both flora and fauna ( Parmesan , 2006 ; Chen et al ., 2011 ). These range shifts affect the genetic drift and trophic interactions of living organisms ( Parmesan , 2006 ; Chen et al ., 2011 ), which have implications for their long-term survival . Climate change can also expand viable habitat and timeframes for bacteria that cause infectious diseases in humans to persist in the environment . This includes Vibrio vulnificus and V . parahaemolyticus bacteria ( Baker-Austin et al ., 2013 ; Gomez et al ., 2013 ; Wu et al ., 2016 ) often found in brackish to saline waters in South Carolina ( Greenfield et al ., 2017 ) and are similar to other bacteria which cause Cholera . According to the Center for Disease Control , Vibrio infections can lead to severe illness , loss of limbs , and even death in 20 % of infected individuals . The rate of infection from Vibrio bacteria has increased by more than 100 % since 1985 ( Newton et al . 2012 ). Additionally , a significant majority of Vibrio strains sampled in the wild have exhibited at least some resistance to antibiotics ( Baker-Austin et al ., 2008 ), of which highly resistant strains typically cause infections in humans ( Weiss et al . 2012 ; Baalousha , McNeal , & Scott , 2019 ; Cotti-Rausch et al ., 2019 ). An increase in seasonal temperatures , heavy metals , and exposure to disposed antibiotics , among other mechanisms , contributes to the development of antibiotic resistance ( Baalousha , McNeal , & Scott , 2019 ; Cotti-Rausch et al ., 2019 ). These conditions are expected to occur and magnify over time , which will significantly increase the probability of antibiotic resistance and virality of wild bacterial strains .
Rapid changes in coastal ecosystems caused by human activities , coupled with the effects of changing coastal conditions , weather , and climate , pose a great threat to human health and well-being in coastal regions ( Gomez et al ., 2013 ). As these factors degrade the local environment and continue to impact the ecosystems where humans live , the need for solutions to counteract the realized and potential negative effects on people and wildlife becomes greater .
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NATURE-BASED SOLUTIONS MANUAL FOR KIAWAH ISLAND