for a greater number of solutions . If the Army embraces a constructivist philosophy for training , commanders will transition from managing training to designing training , which will achieve greater results .
With constructivism as the philosophy on which Army training is built , we can use a more cognitive learning theory to design training events and scenarios . Cognitive learning theory is the dominant theoretical influence on instructional design in the educational world . 27 This theory places emphasis on factors within the learner , as opposed to factors within the environment ( which would fall more within the behaviorist model ). 28 Cognitive psychology is the basis for cognitive learning , and has influenced instructional design primarily through the understanding that ( 1 ) learning is an active process where high-level cognitive processes occur , ( 2 ) learning is cumulative in that prior knowledge is always a factor , ( 3 ) the brain represents and organizes knowledge in a certain way as memory , and ( 4 ) learning is itself a specific and deliberate cognitive process . 29 In this theory , the learner constructs meaning from instruction rather than being a recipient of meaning . 30 Commanders that incorporate cognitive learning theory into their training design will be more concerned with why their units performed a certain way than with how they performed . While the desired training outcomes may be very similar to those used in past training , the purpose will be to observe an action as evidence of the individual or group performing the desired cognitive process . 31 Many good commanders intuitively do this , but codifying this approach in doctrine will support training that is more effective across the operating force .
Through a cognitive learning theory , training and education can be developed to specifically target desired outcomes . While there is significant research on different ways of developing and assessing learning , Ellen Gagné ’ s system of categorization is widely used . 32 Constructivists agree that there are different types of learning outcomes , and each type of outcome requires a different type of instruction ( or condition ) for it to be transferred to a learner . 33 Gagné establishes five large categories or “ domains ”: declarative knowledge , intellectual skills , cognitive strategies , attitudes , and psychomotor skills . 34 Additionally , intellectual skills can be further refined into concepts , procedures , and problem solving — all of which have different requirements for learning . Though these differences may seem either obvious or trivial , they could significantly affect the way the Army trains . Obviously , no one will train troop-leading procedures ( TLP ) exactly the same way he or she trains land navigation , but there can also be a difference in training TLP as processes , as opposed to problem solving . In PME , the two maneuver BOLCs train TLP as processes , as it is often the officers ’ first experience with thorough TLP , but the MCCC trains them as problem solving . This allows the MCCC to present different and challenging opportunities to its students . This idea of categories of learning is used in PME , but not in the operating force .
Instructional Design as a Solution
Currently there is no guide for operating-force commanders to determine how to best train a task other than the objective of accomplishing the task . Incorporating the academic process of instructional design into training development is how the Army could apply the science of learning and constructivism in the operating force . The term “ instructional design ” refers to an academic process of systematically translating the theories and principles of learning into plans for instructional materials , activities , resources , and evaluation . 35 Though some may not think of unit training as instruction , it actually shares many characteristics : it is the intentional arrangement of experiences leading to soldiers ( or other learners ) acquiring particular capabilities or skills . Quality instructional design based on the constructivist philosophy and cognitive learning theory promotes cognitive processes that lead to learning . 36 Using an established doctrinal system is important to design instruction so that the goals ( learning or training outcomes ), instructional strategy ( the “ how ”), and evaluation ( or assessment of the instruction and the learners ) all match . The academic world has been using instructional-design processes for years , and the Army has been using instructional design for PME courses ; however , to prepare our formations to operate in a complex world , we must begin to use it for training design in the operating force as well .
The Army could dramatically improve training across the force by creating a doctrinal construct for training design that incorporates learning science philosophy and theory with evidence-based instructional-design principles and processes . PME can only provide so much education in the brief time a student participates , and current Army unit training based on behaviorism is insufficient at bridging the gap to prepare soldiers and
104 November-December 2016
MILITARY REVIEW