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FORCE AND FAITH
website, http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9806/danpre.html (accessed 22 October 2014).
20. James Madison, “Memorial and Remonstrance against
Religious Assessments,” 1785, from Founders Online, National
Archives, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/01-08-02-0163 (accessed 22 October 2014).
21 . Chris Beneke, Beyond Toleration: The Religious Origins
of American Pluralism (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press,
2006), 204. Beneke notes that the constitutional provisions
for religious liberty were responsible for the growth in the
number and diversity of churches in America following the
ratification of the First Amendment.
22. Everson v. Board of Education of the Township of Ewing,
330 U.S. 1 (1947).
23. Isaac Kramnick and R. Laurence Moore, The Godless
Constitution: A Moral Defense of the Secular State, (New York:
W.W. Norton, 2005), 31.
24. de Tocqueville, Volume I, Chapter 17.
25. Sandoz, 132. Sandoz demonstrates that Benjamin
Rush’s belief that “the only foundation for a useful education
in a republic is to be laid in religion” was widespread among
the colonists and Founders during the Revolution. While the
personal religion of the Founders is widely debated, scholarship supports there was a strong consensus among the
Founders of the value of religion in a republic; see also Jon
Meacham, American Gospel: God, the Founding Fathers, and
the making of a Nation (New York: Random House, 2007).
As de Tocqueville noted nearly a century after the American
Founding, “in America religion is the road to knowledge, and
the observance of the divine law leads man to civil freedom.”
26. George Washington, “Washington’s Farewell Address,
1796,” from the Lillian Goldman Law Library website, Yale Law
School, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/washing.asp
(accessed 22 October 2014).
27. Robert Putnam and David Campbell, American Grace:
How Religion Divides and Unites Us (New York: Simon and
Schuster, 2010), 88. Putnam and Campbell cite the 1950s as
the “high tide of civic religion” of the twentieth century in
terms of weekly church attendance, church construction, and
positive responses to poll questions such as whether religion
was important and whether it could answer today’s problems.
28. Ted Jelen, To Serve God and Mammon: Church-State
Relations in American Politics, 2nd ed. (Washington, DC:
Georgetown University Press, 2010), 8.
29. Putnam and Campbell, 117.
30. Wallace v. Jaffree, 472 U.S. 38 (1985). The three parts
of the Lemon Test are 1) the statute must have a secular
legislative purpose 2) its principal or primary effect must be
one that neither advances nor inhibits religion 3) the statute
must not foster an excessive government entanglement with
religion.
31. Ibid.
32. Jelen, 17.
33. Walter Russell Meade, Special Providence: American
Foreign Policy and How It Changed the World (New York:
Routledge, 2002), 147-48. For an examination of American missionary work in the Middle East, see Michael B.
Oren, Power, Faith, and Fantasy: America in the Middle East
1776-Present (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2007).

MILITARY REVIEW  March-April 2015

34. Paul Gifford, “Some Recent Developments in African
Christianity,” African Affairs, 93(373): 513-534; Julie Hearn,
“The ‘Invisible’ NGO: U.S. Evangelical Missions in Kenya,” Journal of Religion in Africa 32(1): 32-60.
35. James Dobbins et al., America’s Role in Nation-Building:
From Germany to Iraq (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation,
2003).
36. Examples include Somalia (1993), Haiti (1994; 1996),
Kosovo (1999-2000). The U.S./Coalition intervention into
Iraq, which began with military invasion in March 2003 and
which continued as a U.N.-sanctioned and Iraqi government-authorized stability, security, transition, and reconstruction occupation is also classifiable in this category of internationalized internal conflict.
37. National Security Strategy 2015, 9. The National
Security Strategy states specifically that “We will work to
address the underlying conditions that can help foster violent
extremism such as poverty, inequality, and repression. This
means supporting alternatives to extremist messaging and
greater economic opportunities for women and disaffected
youth. We will help build the capacity of the most vulnerable
states and communities to defeat terrorists locally.”
38. International Religious Freedom Act.
39. Susanne Hoeber-Rudolph, “Religious Concomitants of
Transnationalism: From a Universal Church to a Universal Religiosity?” The Scared and Sovereign: Religion and International
Politics, ed. John D. Carlson and Erik C. Owens (Washington,
DC: Georgetown University Press, 2003), 149.
40. International Religious Freedom Act. The act specifies that “United States chiefs of missions shall seek out and
contact religious nongovernmental organizations to provide
high-level meetings with religious nongovernmental organizations where appropriate and beneficial.” It also states that
“diplomatic missions should give particular consideration
to those programs and candidates deemed to assist in the
promotion of the right to religious freedom” when allocating
funds. The IRFA also permits “access to the premises of any
United States diplomatic mission or consular post by any United States citizen seeking to conduct an activity for religious
purposes.”
41. The Alan Shawn Feinstein International Famine Center,
“The Future of Humanitarian Action: Implications of Iraq and
Other Recent Crises,” January 2004, 4, http://www.humanrights.unisi.it/h2005/allegati/future.pdf (accessed 22 October
2014).
42. Michael Williams, Civil Military Relations and Peacekeeping, Adelphi Paper 321 (London: International Institute
for Strategic Studies, 1998), 14.
43. Evelyn Bush, Transnational Religion and Secular Institutions: Structure and Strategy in Human Rights Advocacy (doctoral dissertation, Cornell University, 2005).
44. George Washington portrait courtesy of the National
Portrait Gallery, Washington, D.C.; extract from Washington’s
Farewell Address, 1796, Lillian Goldman Law Library, Yale Law
School, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/washing.asp
(accessed 6 February 2015).
45. John A. Nagl, David H. Petraeus, James F. Amos, and Sarah Sewall, The U.S. Army/Marine Corps Counterinsurgency Field
Manual (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 300.

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