Medidas de Gestao das Pescarias Marinhas e Aquicultura 2019 The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2018 | Page 66

PART 1 WORLD REVIEW
from processing. Many different species are used
for fishmeal and fish oil production, small pelagic
species predominating. Many of the species used,
such as anchoveta (Engraulis ringens), have
comparatively high oil yields but are rarely used
for direct human consumption.
extent depends on the species, product form, cost
of labour and transportation. Further outsourcing
of production to developing countries might be
constrained by sanitar y and hygiene
requirements that are difficult to meet, by
growing labour costs in some countries
(particularly in Asia) and by higher transport
costs. All of these factors could lead to changes in
distribution and processing practices and to
increases in fish prices.
Fishmeal and fish-oil production f luctuate
according to changes in the catches of these
species. Anchoveta catches, for example, are
dominated by the El Niño phenomenon, which
affects stock abundance (see section on capture
fisheries production). Over time, adoption of
good management practices and the
implementation of certification schemes have
decreased the volumes of catches of species
targeted for reduction to fishmeal. Fishmeal
production peaked in 1994 at 30 million tonnes
(live weight equivalent) and has followed a
f luctuating but overall declining trend since then.
In 2016, landings from fisheries directed for
fishmeal production were down to less than 15
million tonnes (live weight equivalent) because of
reduced catches of anchoveta. Owing to the
growing demand for fishmeal and fish oil, in
particular from the aquaculture industr y, and
coupled with high prices, a growing share of
fishmeal is being produced from fish by-products,
which previously were often wasted. It is
estimated that by-products account for about 25
to 35 percent of the total volume of fishmeal and
fish oil produced, but there are also regional
differences. For example, by-product use in
Europe is comparatively high at 54 percent
( Jackson and Newton, 2016). With no additional
raw material expected to come from whole fish
caught by reduction-dedicated fisheries (in
particular, small pelagics), any increase in
fishmeal production will need to come from use
of by-products, which can, however, have a
negative impact on its nutritional value as feed
(see the section on projections in Part 4).
Despite the technical advances and innovations,
many countries, especially less developed
economies, still lack adequate infrastructure and
ser vices for ensuring fish qualit y, such as
hygienic landing centres, electric power supply,
potable water, roads, ice, ice plants, cold rooms,
refrigerated transport and appropriate processing
and storage facilities. This shortcoming,
especially when associated with tropical
temperatures, can result in high post-har vest
losses, as fish can spoil in the boat, at landing,
during storage or processing, on the way to
market and while awaiting sale. In Africa, some
estimates put post-har vest losses at 20 to 25
percent, and even up to 50 percent, and
deterioration of qualit y can account for more than
70 percent of the loss (A kande and Diei-Ouadi,
2010). Throughout the world, post-har vest fish
losses are a major concern and occur in most fish
distribution chains; an estimated 27 percent of
landed fish is lost or wasted between landing and
consumption. As noted in the discussion of post-
har vest loss and waste in Part 3 (see
“International trade, sustainable value chains
and consumer protection”), when discards prior
to landing are included, 35 percent of global
catches are lost or wasted and therefore not
utilized (Gustavsson et al., 2011).
A significant, but declining, proportion of world
fisheries production is processed into fishmeal
and fish oil. This portion contributes indirectly to
human food production and consumption when
these ingredients are used as feed in aquaculture
and livestock raising. Fishmeal is a proteinaceous
f lour-t ype material obtained after milling and
dr ying of fish or fish parts, while fish oil is
obtained through the pressing of the cooked fish
and subsequent centrifugation and separation.
These products can be produced from whole fish,
fish trimmings or other fish by-products resulting
Fish oil represents the richest available source of
long-chain poly unsaturated fatt y acids (PUFAs),
important in human diets for a wide range of
critical functions. However, the Marine
Ingredients Organisation (IFFO) estimates that
approximately 75 percent of annual fish oil
production still goes into aquaculture feeds
(Auchterlonie, 2018). Because of the variable
supply of fishmeal and fish oil production and
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