FEATURE
"REREAD, REREAD, UNDERLINE AND HIGHLIGHT."
Rereading, shooting free throws, or any other form of massed
practice feels effective. We enjoy the soothing familiarity each time
we highlight a sentence. This massed practice loops knowledge or
activity through the short-term memory circuit but skips consoli-
dation into long-term memory. The erroneous sense of mastery of
the subject matter is called the fluency illusion. Instead of rereading,
split time between reading and retrieving. A 40/60 ratio seems to
be the most effective. Aristotle, Francis Bacon and William James
figured this out hundreds of years ago, before it was named the
practice-retrieval effect. Massed practice also leads to example
learning rather than rule learning. While tackling new concepts,
attempt to elucidate underlying principles (rules) rather than rote
memorizing the particulars (examples).
"YOU NEED A ROUTINE, A CONSISTENT STUDY
AREA, AND AN ESTABLISHED SCHEDULE."
An established schedule can work, provided one makes use of var-
ied practice and interleaving principles. One axiom to remember:
“Shuffle your flashcards.” John H. Saxton, a math teacher, devised
several math textbooks of mixed problems. He proved his students
could perform better on exams if the different problem types were
practiced in random order. Varied practice makes one “perform
continual [active] adjustments.” This is the antidote to massed
practice. Apparently the differences work better than commonali-
ties to “move beyond memorization to higher levels of conceptual
learning and application … prepares the brain for the unexpected.”
In one study, mixing geometry problems led to impeded per-
formance on periodic assessments but a 215 percent increase in the
final exam grade (longer term retention).
Perceptual learning modules (PLMs) take advantage of differ-
ences. According to Saxton, using mostly visual cues, PLMs allow
“discriminating or classifying things that look the same to the
untrained eye but are not.” This method involves less conscious
deliberation than interleaving, challenging the cognitive and visual
systems simultaneously to build perceptual intuition. On the job
examples that PLMs attempt to recreate include: hitting a 90 mph
baseball, pilots’ perceiving the flight controls in an instant, physi-
cians deciding sick or not sick within seconds - pattern recognition.
Additionally, unless you can study in the same room you take
the test, it is better to vary your study environment -- to break
routines. The diverse cues applied to lessons will lead to longer
retention. Studying while walking or moving enhances blood flow
to the brain and therefore memory formation.
exercises, mild mental activity is best. For mathematical or spatial
tasks, any break will do. The term “incubation break” has been
applied to these “deliberate interruptions.” When stuck (or tired)-
-take a break!
"SIMILARLY, DO NOT INTERRUPT A LESSON BEFORE
YOU HAVE FINISHED IT."
Interrupting prior to completion of a task causes us to hold the
task in memory. This effect, seen in studies of restaurant servers, is
called the Zeigarnik Effect. We create suspense in the brain when
we have an unfinished task, just like a server who has not closed the
tab yet, or a doctor with a pending lab result. Interruptions allow
one to pause periodically to reflect on underlying themes; again
rule learning vs. example learning. When a professor used this
interruption concept throughout the semester on a large research
project, individuals completed more developed work, a process
they named “percolation.”
"DO NOT PLAY MUSIC IN THE BACKGROUND WHILE
STUDYING, AND IF YOU DO, IT SHOULD ALWAYS BE
THE SAME MUSIC."
Though playing the exact study music during a test was optimal,
researchers discovered that studying with any music at all is better
than none. This may point back to different environmental cues
aiding in consolidation. They consistently found strong recall im-
provements with variation of environmental context.
"STUDYING LEADS TO RETENTION WHILE TESTING
IS FOR ASSESSMENT."
Studying can lead to retention, especially if retrieval practice is in-
corporated. But testing may lead to more efficient learning. Testing
“interrupts forgetting.” Testing also demands generation: coming
up with information on your own, rather than being passively pre-
sented with it. Researchers gave a final exam cold on the first day
of class and found that students retained more of the material by
the end of the semester. Testing and quizzing also exploit spaced
repetition. Repeated exposure at spaced intervals strengthens the
mastery of material.
"EXPERTS MAKE THE BEST TEACHERS."
Physicist educator Eric Mazur refers to this as the “curse of knowl-
edge.” As one’s mental models improve, the initial lessons fade
from memory. Experts often skip initial steps and therefore have
trouble teaching novice learners. Informed peer/team instruction
is more effective.
"STICK WITH THE SAME MATERIAL. DO NOT GIVE IN
TO DISTRACTIONS, ESPECIALLY IF YOU ARE WORK-
ING THROUGH A STICKING POINT." This is why the Residents as Teachers (RATS) initiative is so
important for medical student education, and why tutors and peer
educators are so valuable. Encourage group or peer-to-peer learning
if you are an educator.
Distractions seem to benefit individuals who reach sticking points.
Researchers have tested different types of distractions. For linguistic (continued on page 16)
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