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effort , knowledge , team spirit and special equipment . Many special requirements in mountains are connected with logistic support provided to operating troops . Above certain heights , they have to primarily rely on their own capacities , using the “ pulling principle of supplying ”. On the other hand , certain types of mountainous terrain allow good mobility , so that objectives can be achieved through capabilities which can conduct limited mountain warfare ( e . g . light infantry brigades ).
To ensure a general understanding of issues concerning operations conducted in the mountain environment , and mainly to help commanders understand the complexity of the impact mountains pose on troops , the NATO MW COE is preparing a general classification of mountains . It could be used as a starting point for further NATO mountain warfare development by including elements additional to those already described in relevant sources . Altitude , relief and climate , as a basis , contribute to mobility , survivability and sustainability of deployed capabilities . The final product should reflect this through scheme , which should be clear and easy to understand . Existing material will be used and upgraded with a mobility level and level of individual / collective training needed to perform operation effectively .
To accomplish the classification as shown in Figure 2 , mountains should primarily be classified by their height , and be commonly named . Altitude may be understood in two ways , that is in terms of local altitude ( also relative , from flat terrain to the measured point ) and in terms of the absolute altitude ( altitude above the sea level ). Just to mention , high altitude within NATO is defined by air component only ( height above 10,000 meters ), and is , as such , of no relevance for mountain warfare .
Based on national classifications of NATO countries and additional medical arguments , presented by the NATO RTO 4 ( Muza 2011 ), the initial option for generalization would be as presented :
�� �������������������������������� altitude of 2500 m . Effects of altitude are low ( heavier breathing only ), but can be managed easily by good physical fitness .
�� ����� ���������� �������� ����� 2500 m and up to 5500 m , where the effect of altitude is significant and acclimatization of troops is needed .
�� ���������� ����� ���������� include terrain above 5500 m including highest peaks on Earth . Even fully acclimatized personnel may operate for shorter period , usually by small teams , trained according to highest standards 5 . Some rare exceptions are known from Siachen conflict , where highest objectives were located up to 6800 m above the sea level ( Malik 2004 ).
Relief or the shape of the terrain effects mainly mobility . Relief has often a major impact on the climate conditions in the area . It can be divided into average steepness of slopes and extension of elevated peaks .
Slopes may be divided into 6 :
�� ��� ��� ����� ���� ��������� ������ less than 600 m of relative height allow , in general , a good mobility for vehicles , as well . Capabilities with a limited capability of conducting mountain warfare , might be deployed to such areas .
�� �������� ����� ����� ���� ������ above 600 m of relative height limit the mobility and require specific knowledge and equipment . Motorized transportation , including helicopters , is possible in low and high mountains .
�� ������ ���� ���� ����������� as extremely steep slopes , which can be managed only by special trained individuals and units .
Like all across our planet , the climate in the mountains depends on the latitude and its position related to the oceans ( Veyret & Veyret , 1962 ). The climate , which includes temperatures , precipitation , humidity and wind , isprimarily affecting survivability of units . Combining all of these components calls for a tool which could assist planners in pre-deployment stage . They should be aware of peculiarities , which are expected on the way of mission accomplishment and incorporate training and equipment assets . Writing about mountains , the whole spectre of dry , hot , wet and cold environments have to be taken into account .
Conclusion
This article reflects the complexity and difficulties concerning the identification of mountain environment and all pertaining features , important for military usage . Numerous definitions , descriptions and classifications of mountains set by nations and international organizations , call for agreed , valid and overall classification , constructed to be a simple and helpful tool for all users within NATO . Constructive discussions will be indispensable to bring this idea to life .
Notes , comments , discussions and any other information are welcome . Article is also available at : http :// www . mwcoe . org /
1
C . Körner , M . Ohsava : Millenium Ecosystem Assesment , Chapter 24 , Mountain systems ( 283-284 ). United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centtre ( Kapos et al . 2000 ).
2
ATP 3.2.1 – Allied Land Tactics
3
USA : FM 3-97.6 ( 90-6 ) Mountain Operations , ITA : PSE 3.2.10 » Le operacioni in ambiente montano e climi rigidi , FRA : EMP 23 431 Doctrine d ’ emploi des forces terrestres en zone montagneuse ...
4
Research and Technology Organization , transformed to CSO ( Collaboration Support Office ) within NATO Science and Technology Organization .
5
Currently , the majority of standards is established within national authorities .
6
Up to 2014 defined within NATO STANAG 3992 , which has been cancelled and superseded by STANAG 2592 .
24LAND POWER