Journal on Policy and Complex Systems
also difficult for many ( Lane , 1992b ). And , when created , models have their own limitations . One goal of the present analysis is to introduce IPA as an emerging methodology and as a science accelerator for OR , for more easily surfacing and clarifying mental models , creating theoretical maps , and then evaluating them for their potential usefulness or effectiveness for decision-making and planning in organizations . The other goal is to identify a link between theory maps and computer models to support further acceleration in the development of our science . This approach is expected to provide a path for scholars and practitioners to shift from soft OR to more explicit causal models and then to computer models ( Forrester , 1994 ) in much the same way that scenario planning for strategic planning might benefit from the use of system modeling — particularly causal relationships and feedback loops ( Burt , 2011 ) to track and improve organizational performance ( Dyson & Foster , 1983 ).
1.1 The Core of the Case
The use ( and abuse ) of power is an important aspect of organizations . Fink ( 2017 ) provides an excellent presentation and discussion on the workings of power in bureaucratic , totalitarian , command , and control systems , and Deming ’ s cooperative management structures in “ Power Systems : How Power Works on Different Systems .” Fink contrasted and compared the four systems of power in an effort to better understand the benefits and detriments of each . He also noted some overlaps between those social power systems and cited some of Wallis ’ work to challenge researchers to find the means for greater understanding of power and systems ( Wallis , 2011 , 2016 ; Wallis & Valentinov , 2016c ).
This is an interesting challenge because one of the great difficulties in the social sciences is objectively evaluating and improving theories — hence , our ontological and epistemological understandings of how the world works . There is scant research that substantiates that our theories and practices have improved significantly over the past century . That is to say , our ability to reach complex and difficult goals has remained rather limited . Organizational theory is not very useful for improving the success of corporations ( Burrell , 1997 ), nor is organizational change theory ( Appelbaum , 1970 ), and policies rarely reach their goals ( Light , 2016 ; Wallis , 2011 , 2016 ). Psychology is not highly regarded as a field ( Kovera & McAuliff , 2000 ) perhaps because ( according to one estimate ) it has reached only about ten percent of its potential ( Wallis , 2015b ). At the same time , many ( perhaps all ) branches of the social sciences complain about fragmentation . Philosophy is a patchwork of confusing fragments ( Ledoux , 2012 ), as are sociology ( Bakker , 2011 ) and organizational studies ( Lewis & Kelemen , 2002 ). Even systems theory and interdisciplinary studies are not immune ( Newell , 2007 ), despite their professed desire to integrate perspectives and achieve a holistic understanding . Indeed , it seems that we are successful in theory implementation only about 20 % of the time
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