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model the history of successful agents with the roles of classifiers and ( b ) update themselves into more efficient algorithms when necessary . In fact , the algorithm tends to favor generic agents who can consistently make more precise predictions . Besides , the genetic algorithm allows for the construction of new agents from the combination of parts chosen by performance rather than randomly , maintaining the efficiency of the results at each interaction .
Darwin ’ s Theory of Evolution provided the most compelling explanation for how simple rules — such as the algorithm of natural selection — are able to generate highly complex products with no need of a designer ( or a central control ). The Darwinian vision was combined with Mendel ’ s views to lead to what is today called the ‘ Modern Synthesis ’ of the theory of evolution . The Modern Synthesis became largely accepted by biologists and can be characterized by natural selection , gradual evolution and microscopic processes of genetic variation . In the 1960s and 1970s , the validity of the Modern Synthesis starts being challenged .
In a study with fossils , Gould and Eldredge ( 1977 ) verify some discrepancies between the theory and the evidence they found . These paleontologists suggest that punctuational change — not gradual ones — dominated the history of life on Earth . According to them , evolution would be concentrated in rapid events of speciation and would not occur in a constant rhythm in tune with geological scale . Their observations of fossils show that most organisms remain practically unaltered through geological time and that evolutionary changes tend to be concentrated in rapid events of speciation . This somewhat antagonistic view to the gradualism established by the Modern Synthesis becomes known as theory of punctuated equilibria .
IV - Interactions , Nonlinearities , Hierarchies , and Scales
This subsection introduces the complementary concepts by Anderson
( 1972 ) and Simon ( 1973 ) on the relevance of including varied scales and the cross effects among scales when trying to understand complex , intricate phenomena .
Anderson ( 1972 ) starts his paper ‘ More is Different ’ disputing the hypothesis generally accepted by the scientific community of the reductionist paradigm — according to which the whole can be understood by the segmentation and understanding of each part individually . Against reductionism , the author argues that even if all natural laws were known , yet it would not be possible to rebuild the universe .
On the contrary , defends Anderson , at each level of complexity , new properties — which demand new understanding , new research — come up . Still on the scale and large systems topic , Anderson emphasizes the nonlinearities present in the system .
Closing the argument the author states that “ In this case we can see how the whole becomes not only more than but very different from the sum of its parts ” ( Anderson , 1972 , p . 395 , our emphasis ). This quote has become a fundamental part of complexity as it is seen presently .
Simon ( 1973 ) suggests that “ everything is connected , but some things are more connected than others ” ( Simon , 1973 , p . 23 ). He also refers to boxes , in the sense used by Rosenblueth and Wiener ( 1945 ) when they describe recursive structures . The idea is that the boxes would be inside other boxes , which , in turn , would be inside other boxes , thus establishing complex hierarchies so that the higher the number of layers , the more complex the system . Besides , Simon defends the notion that the interaction among components of each box is more
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