Historical Review of Distance and Online Education from 1700s to 2021 in the United States
work , the writing out by the student of the results of his work , the correction and criticism of the instructor of the written lessons , and the suggestion and assistance upon points where the student needs special help . ( Hermann , 1921 , p . 7 )
Hermann ( 1921 ) noted that with correspondence study “ the student and the instructor reduce everything to writing ” ( p . 7 ). However , from a pedagogical perspective within this framework , Hermann noted , “ Correspondence instruction adapts itself to the student — his time , his background , his conditions , his desires ” ( 1921 , p . 5 ). When students enrolled in a correspondence study course , they received a textbook , blank paper to use as directed , a syllabus with assignments , instructions with explanations , and problems to solve ( Hermann , 1921 ).
The origins of instructional design are rooted in World War II , when psychologists and educators conducted research and developed training materials for the military ( Dick , 1987 ; Reiser , 2001 ). Researchers including Gagné , Briggs , and Flanagan had a tremendous influence on the development of the training materials , and following the war , continued their work related to instructional design ( Dick , 1987 ; Reiser , 2001 ).
B . F . Skinner and Robert Gagné conducted seminal research that is foundational to instructional design and the field of the Learning Sciences . In 1954 , Skinner published “ The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching ,” and in 1968 , he published
The Technology of Teaching providing insights on instruction , teaching machines , and programmed materials . According to Skinner ( 1968 ), “ The first step in designing instruction is to define the terminal behavior ” ( p . 190 ). While Skinner took a behaviorist approach to education , Gagné took a cognitive approach .
In 1965 , Gagné published The Conditions of Learning and Theory of Instruction , which had an immense influence on instructional design and online learning . Gagné ’ s conditions of learning included internal and external factors . According to Gagné and Briggs ( 1974 ), internal factors “ originate from the original source of the individual ’ s memory ” ( e . g ., factual information from prior learning , intellectual skills from prior learning , strategies from prior practice ), while external factors included guided stimulation ( e . g ., continuity of arranged conditions , repetition , and reinforcement ) ( pp . 10-11 ) ( see Figure 1 ). Gagné ’ s work built upon four basic assumptions about instructional design :
• Instructional design must be for the individual .
• Instructional design has phases that are both immediate and long-range .
• Systemically designed instruction may greatly affect individual human development .
• Knowledge of how humans learn must provide the basis for designing instruction . ( Gagné & Briggs , 1974 , pp . 4-5 )
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