J. Eur. Opt. Society-Rapid Publ. 22, 32( 2026) 337
Author contribution statement
Conceptualization, HANG YUAN and JIAHUI REN; methodology, HANG YUAN; software, JIAHUI REN; validation, YANG ZHANG, HANG YUAN and JIAHAO MIN; formal analysis, HANG YUAN; resources, HANG YUAN; data curation, HANG YUAN; writing-original draft preparation, HANG YUAN and JIAHUI REN; writing-review and editing, HANG YUAN and JIA- HUI REN; visualization, JIAHUI REN and JIAHAO MIN; supervision, HANG YUAN; project administration, HANG YUAN; funding acquisition, HANG YUAN and ZHENG ZHANG. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Conflicts of interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Data availability statement
Data associated with this article are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
1 Chen X, Qiu C, Zhang Z, A multiscale method for infrared ship detection based on morphological reconstruction and two-branch compensation strategy, Sensors 23, 7309( 2023). https:// doi. org / 10.3390 / s23167309.
2 Song W et al., Ship detection and identification in SDGSAT- 1 glimmer images based on the glimmer YOLO model, Int, J. Digital Earth 16( 2), 4687 – 4706( 2023). https:// doi. org / 10.1080 / 17538947.2023.2277796.
3 Kim DG et al., Comparison of measured and simulated IR signals from a scaled model ship, Proc. Spie 8857, 438 – 445( 2013). https:// doi. org / 10.1117 / 12.2024155.
4 Bin C et al., Infrared simulation research based on warships and ocean wake background, Comp. Dig. Eng. 42( 7), 1248 – 1250( 2014). http:// doi. org / 10.3969 / j. issn1672-9722.2014.07.032. 5 Lin J et al., Infrared radiation characteristics simulation of exhaust suppression type ships, Infrared Phys. Technol. 141, 105499( 2024). https:// doi. org / 10.1016 / j. infrared. 2024.105499. 6 Jiang Z et al., Simulation method for infrared radiation transmission characteristics of typical ship targets based on optical remote sensing, Concurrency Computat. Pract. Exper., e7515( 2022). https:// doi. org / 10.1002 / cpe. 7515. 7 Zhang CW et al., Electromagnetic scattering and imaging simulation of extremely large-scale sea-ship scene based on GPU parallel technology, J. Electron Sci. Technol. 22( 2), 16 – 23( 2024). https:// doi. org / 10.1016 / j. jnlest. 2024.100257.
8 Wang M et al., Research on modeling methods of infrared radiation characteristics of sea surface targets, AOPC 2024: Infrared Technology and Applications. Proc. Spie 13493, 84 – 92( 2024). https:// doi. org / 10.1117 / 12.3047745. 9 Bo S et al., Simulation method of high resolution satellite imaging for sea surface target, Infrared Laser Eng. 50( 12), 20210127( 2021https:// doi. org / 10.3788 / IRLA20210127
10 Jiang L et al., Near infrared scene simulation based on reflectance of typical target, Acta Photonica Sinica, 43( 8), 132 – 137( 2014). https:// doi. org / 10.3788 / gzxb20144308. 0810004.
11 Wang X et al., Multi – band infrared radiation characterization and simulation analysis for aerial target, Acta Photonica Sinica 49( 05), 110 – 120( 2020). http:// doi. org / 10.3788 / gzxb20204905.0511002.
12 Laleh RE, Ghasemloo N, Calculate thermal infrared intensity of the hull’ s military ship, J. Geogr. Inf. Syst. 6( 4), 317 – 329( 2014). http:// doi. org / 10.4236 / jgis. 2014.64029.
13 Llorente SDPM, Charris VD, Torres JMG, Infrared signature analysis of surface ships, Ciencia y tecnología de buques 8( 17), 57 – 68( 2015). https:// doi. org / 10.25043 / 19098642. 121.
14 Sun W et al., Digital imaging simulation and closed-loop verification model of infrared payloads in space-based cloud – sea scenarios, Remote Sens. 17( 16), 2900( 2025). https:// doi. org / 10.3390 / rs17162900.
15 Li M et al., Infrared image generation method based on visible images and its detail modulation, Inf. Technol. 40, 34 – 38( 2018). https:// link. cnki. net / urlid / 53.1053. TN. 20180131.1321.014
16 Yuan H et al., Space-based full chain multi-spectral imaging features accurate prediction and analysis for aircraft plume under sea / cloud background, Opt. Express 27( 18), 26027 – 26043( 2019). https:// doi. org / 10.1364 / oe. 27.026027.
17 Yuan H et al., Performance analysis of the infrared imaging system for aircraft plume detection from geostationary orbit, Appl. Opt 58( 7), 1691 – 1698( 2019). https:// doi. org / 10.1364 / AO. 58.001691.
18 Xie C et al., Prediction and simulation analysis of infrared polarization imaging characteristics of aerodynamic heating targets in orbit under sea background, Infrared Laser Eng. 53( 11), 20240222( 2024). http:// doi. org / 10.3788 / IRL A20240222.
19 Bai Y et al., Occlusion and deformation handling visual tracking for UAV via attention-based mask generative network, Remote Sens. 14, 4756( 2022). https:// doi. org / 10.3390 / rs14194756.
20 Wang P et al., Traffic thermal infrared texture generation based on siamese semantic CycleGAN, Infrared Phys. Technol. 116, 103748( 2021). https:// doi. org / 10.1016 / j. infrared. 2021.103748.
21 Pan M et al., Infrared image generation technique based on GAN network, Flight Control Detect. 4, 1 – 6( 2021). http:// doi. org / 10.20249 / j. cnki. 2096-5974.2021.04.001.
22 Liang X, Meng Q, Wang C, Infrared thermal image simulation of ships at sea in the long-wave band, Appl. Opt. 46( 4), 877 – 885( 2025). http:// doi. org / 10.5768 / JAO202546.0404001.
23 Li H et al., Hsiao framework in feature selection for hyperspectral remote sensing images based on jeffries-matusita distance, IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. 63,1 – 21( 2025). https:// doi. org / 10.1109 / TGRS. 2025.3527138.
24 Vanhelmont Q, Combined land surface emissivity and temperature estimation from Landsat 8 OLI and TIRS, ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 166, 390 – 402( 2020). https:// doi. org / 10.1016 / j. isprsjprs. 2020.06.007.
25 Yang XF, Ye M, Mao DL, Application of BRDF model in land cover mapping, J. East China normal Univ.( Nat. Sci.) 01, 113 – 124( 2017). https:// doi. org / 10.3969 / j. issn. 1000- 5641.2017.01.013.
26 Wand YP et al., Evaluation and analysis of effects on the different interpolation temperature algorithms, Inf. Technol. 44( 06), 31 – 35( 2020). http:// doi. org / 10.13274 / j. cnki. hdzj. 2020.06.008.
27 Liu Y et al., A non-uniform spatiotemporal kriging interpolation algorithm for landslide displacement data. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, 78( 6), 4153 – 4166( 2019). https:// doi. org / 10.1007 / s10064-018-1388-1.
28 Long Y Q et al., Difference analysis of slope extraction from DEM based on different directional reference systems, J. Mt.