convening of ecumenical synods, first in 787
in Nicaea, and again in 842 in Constantino-
ple, by imperial decree that restored icons,
but with a newly defined role. Significantly,
it was the Byzantine Greeks who argued
for restoring the icons, while others, mostly
from the eastern and southern parts of the
empire, fought against the restoration. Greek
philosophical thought again provided the
theological justification for this decision: it
was, in a way, a rewriting of Plato’s original
conclusion about depicting the divine. Those
who believed in the rightful restoration of the
icons argued that since God became visible
through the Incarnation of Jesus Christ, the
prohibition against the creation of His image
was no longer valid. Christianity was born at a time when the art
of the Greco-Roman world was replete with
symbols and symbolic representations. In
this world, art was used to convey the Impe-
rial program and narrative. This art had also
been refined to communicate religious and
cultural meaning. The early Christians, meet-
ing clandestinely in catacombs, made exten-
sive use of symbols, as symbols afforded a
measure of protection at a time when fear
of persecution was rampant. Some became
common, and endure as Christian symbols
to this day. Examples include the image
of a fish, the Greek name of which forms
the acronym for “Jesus Christ Son of God
Savior”; the Chi-Rho and the Tau-Rho Greek
letters joined to symbolize the cross.
The Greek propensity for the “ideal” saved
the icons by re-defining them as “ideal”
portraits, though decidedly not “real.” Icons
are basically representations of ideal Chris-
tian virtues suffused with the Greek notion
of sophrosyne and the Christian faith that the
Saints represent. The cross, however, gained preeminence
when Emperor Constantine was visited with
a dream prior to his crucial battle against
his rival Maxentius. In this dream, a celestial
apparition of a cross appeared accompa-
nied by the Greek dictum «εν τουτω Νικα»,
(“by this you shall be victorious”). Constan-
tine’s army consisted of conscripts drawn
from the eastern–mostly Greek-speaking
and largely Christian–part of the Empire.
Constantine, an astute general, knew this
and exploited it to maximum effect by allow-
ing his soldiers to paint the Chi-Rho on their
shields. This emboldened his troops, who
fought with renewed vigor to a victorious
outcome.
Red terra cotta oil lamp, Early Byzantine, 5th
century, North Africa. It features the prominent
Christogram, that is also inscribed on the back of
many Greek icons. The portraits of the Apostles
represent early Christian attempts to preserve the
likeness of early saints.
The victory was celebrated and attributed
to the sign of the cross. With the establish-
ment of Christianity as the religion of the
State in the early 4th century, the cross, the
Christogram, and the Chi-Rho became the
predominant symbols of the new religion.
Henceforth, martyr saints on icons were
The Argie & Emmanuel Tiliakos Collection of Greek Icons
19