How to Coach Yourself and Others Beware of Manipulation | Page 50

deciding whether or not something is a reinforcer, the basic criteria is the frequency of occurrence of a
behavior.
Consequences are not universally reinforcing. For example, happy face stickers may be effective
reinforcers for some children. Other children may find them silly.]
Negative reinforcers
A negative reinforcer is not punishment. These terms are often confused. A negative reinforcer
increases or maintains the frequency of the behavior that terminates the negative reinforcer. In this case
the negative reinforcer is present before the behavior. The organism performs a behavior that
terminates the negative reinforcer. The behavior that terminates the negative reinforcer is likely to
increase or be maintained in frequency. Suppose someone has a headache (negative reinforcer). The
person takes two aspirin but nothing happens. Then the person takes two Tylenol tablets and the
headache goes away. The next time the person has a headache it is likely the person will take Tylenol.
That is the behavior that has been reinforced.
4. Primary and Secondary reinforcers
Primary reinforcers
A primary reinforcer, sometimes called an unconditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus that does not require
pairing to function as a reinforcer and most likely has obtained this function through the evolution and
its role in species' survival. Examples of primary reinforcers include sleep, food, air, water, and sex.
Some primary reinforcers, such as certain drugs, may mimic the effects of other primary reinforcers.
While these primary reinforcers are fairly stable through life and across individuals, the reinforcing
value of different primary reinforcers varies due to multiple factors (e.g., genetics, experience). Thus,
one person may prefer one type of food while another abhors it. Or one person may eat lots of food
while another eats very little. So even though food is a primary reinforcer for both individuals, the
value of food as a reinforcer differs between them.
Secondary reinforcers
A secondary reinforcer, sometimes called a conditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus or situation that has
acquired its function as a reinforcer after pairing with a stimulus that functions as a reinforcer. This
stimulus may be a primary reinforcer or another conditioned reinforcer (such as money). An example
of a secondary reinforcer would be the sound from a clicker, as used in clicker training. The sound of
the clicker has been associated with praise or treats, and subsequently, the sound of the clicker may
function as a reinforcer. As with primary reinforcers, an organism can experience satiation and
deprivation with secondary reinforcers.
5. Intermittent or partial reinforcement:
Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt.
Partial or intermittent positive reinforcement can encourage the victim to persist - for example in most
forms of gambling, the gambler is likely to win now and again but still loses money overall. The
knowledge that one can have what he wants, only not all the time, is one of the strongest and most
effective motivators in nature!
In very much the same way, manipulators will charm their victim into walking on clouds at some
times, but then suddenly ignore them or treat them distantly at other times.

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