will also explore the temporal significance of each function , in the context of structural economic and social changes .
The functions that will be discussed are ( 1 ) addressing loneliness ; and ( 2 ) facilitating economic interconnectedness .
ADDRESSING LONELINESS It is a widely accepted psychological fact that humans desire to belong . Whilst the composition and style of connection that can satisfy this desire may vary from person to person , “ human beings have a pervasive drive to form and maintain at least a minimum quantity of lasting , positive , and significant interpersonal relationships ” ( Baumeister & Leary , 1995 ). A number of economic , cultural and social transformations have occurred over the past century which have reduced opportunities for the formation and preservation of traditional social bonds . Late modernity has shifted us towards highly individualised lifestyles , characterised by increased choice , consumption and self-responsibility over our actions . These trends have granted many unprecedented freedoms , but have also been closely linked to this need to belong being unfulfilled , or loneliness ( Hookway et al ., 2019 ).
Loneliness manifests in various forms and can include social , emotional and collective isolation ( Weiss , 1973 ). There is a well-documented association between loneliness and poor health outcomes , depression , suicide and high public healthcare costs ( Holt-Lundstad et al ., 2015 ). Patulny and Bower ( 2022 ) provide an overview of the following recent structural changes that have increased societal vulnerability to loneliness :
• Changes to families - shrinking family sizes , more single person households and greater family mobility ;
• Changing work and education patterns - highly flexible work arrangements and hours , an increasingly contract-based globalised capitalist economy , expectations to relocate for work and a physical and intergenerational disconnect between colleagues ; and
• Reduced socialising and civic activity - a shift from interacting in community groups towards isolated and solo activities and declining participation in institutions that were previously fundamental in facilitating social connection ( e . g . churches and religious institutions , civic organisations and labour unions ).
In terms of more recent structural changes , it is still too early to fully understand how the COVID-19 Pandemic and the proliferation of remote working , video conferencing and other digital communication tools will affect how we connect with each other at a cultural or societal level . However , a displacement effect likely exists , whereby digital communication substitutes for physical connection , exacerbating loneliness .
The objective of reducing loneliness is increasingly moving into the responsibility of the public sphere . In the UK , for example , loneliness has been recognised as a public health threat that strains health and social care systems , as well as the economy by reducing productivity . This has led to the creation of a minister for loneliness , as well as the release of several policy strategies aimed at addressing the phenomenon ( Jentoft et al ., 2024 ). Whilst this particular policy example has faced valid criticisms for individualising loneliness and ignoring core social determinants , it shows how loneliness has transformed from a problem that was previously dealt with by families and close communities , to one that now requires public intervention .
Structural changes in urban settings have also contributed to reduced social connection . Increased spatial and social mobility since the mid-20th century has facilitated rapid urbanisation and labour market restructuring , transforming communities from mostly regional villages and towns to expansive cities and densely populated high rise areas ( Franklin and Tranter , 2021 ). It is expected that future changes to the structure of the urban environment will be driven by “ digitalisation ” of work ( e . g . remote working ), densification of housing and smaller household sizes ( Roberts , 2015 ). This will further reduce opportunities for social connection within the home and workplace .
The concept of public spaces as “ third spaces ” was popularised by sociologist Ray Oldenburg ( 2005 ) to emphasise their distinction from the home ( first place ) and workplace ( second place ). Interactions with others is inherent to the concept of a “ public ” space . They are vital components of urban and community life that enable the creation and reproduction of human connection . As the role of homes and workplaces in facilitating this connection is reduced , the onus will increasingly fall on public spaces . Recognition of the critical infrastructure role played by public spaces in enabling social connection will be necessary to ensure that public spaces are adequately provided and maintained , and that this positive relationship is maximised . Proactively doing so will be crucial to addressing loneliness , particularly in this period of rapid social change .
FACILITATING ECONOMIC INTERCONNECTEDNESS The emergence of new measures of economic success discussed in the beginning of this article can be interpreted as an acknowledgement that the purpose of developing an economy should be to benefit the lives of those operating within it . This negates a common rhetoric that purports “ the economy ” as its own independent entity , worth prioritising above all other objectives . It ’ s also an indication that the developed world is moving beyond a phase of prosperity defined by growth . So what does the future look like ?
The literature on economic megatrends is ambiguous regarding whether society is on the brink of a third , fourth , fifth or sixth industrial revolution . Counting aside , there is a clear consensus that the global economy is entering an era marked by significant technological and societal advances . These developments are expected to integrate the physical , digital and biological realms , and change the way we live , work and connect to one another . Roberts ( 2015 ) outlines how technological advances in manufacturing , distribution and energy will change local markets and the global economy in parallel . He argues that :
“ The economic model of competitive advantage based on agglomeration , economies of scale and low labour costs , will remain for some time , but it has peaked , and a paradigm change is underway [ that will ] bring about a significant increase in re-shorting and localised production of manufacturing goods and services ”
Technological advancements will lead to more cost efficient production , in smaller quantities , with greater flexibility and
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