soul
In this article I offer a brief insight into how we
may account for addiction (or to be precise, an
excessive appetite) by understanding the
characteristics of the soul as represented by Socrates.
What I propose is:
‘Addiction is a disorder of the soul
characterised by the excessive use
of psychoactive substances, or the
excessive involvement in certain
non-substance related activities.’
T
he way in which Socrates defined the
soul in mid-fifth century BC is very
different to the way we think of it today.
In modern times, the soul is more likely
to be thought of as a non-secular entity,
relating to religious or spiritual matters.
The idea that we are embodied souls, and more than
just physio-chemical organisms, does not accord with
current intellectual thinking. To consider the soul
serving a practical purpose by moving us into action
would seem incongruous to most people.
Socrates thought differently. For him the soul was
life itself. The soul takes primacy and should be cared
for over the body. It is the soul that governs the body. It
guides us into action and carries us wherever we go.
Reason and intellect constitute the essence of the soul,
which is perceptible by reason alone. Socrates believed
that the soul is something that keeps bodily desires
and affections in check. These are the bare bones of
Socrates’ conception of the soul. They permit us to
consider the soul within the context of addiction.
Through Plato’s writing, Socrates tells us that the
soul is made up of three parts. There is ‘appetite’,
which can be thought of as base physical craving. Then
there is ‘reason or logic’, the faculty that takes a
considered view, and sets the right course of action.
The third part is spirit, not to be confused with
‘spiritual’. Spirit can be seen as anger, indignation,
often an ally of knowledge.
When appetite is kept in check by reason, the soul
is in a state of balance, a state of harmony. A happy
and flourishing life can be expected when the soul is
in this state. On the other hand, when appetite rules
the soul and defeats reason, the soul becomes
disordered. Appetite becomes unruly and if it is not
checked, addiction ensues. A miserable, unhappy life,
dominated by excess can be expected.
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Socrates thought differently. For him the
soul was life itself.... It is the soul that
governs the body. It guides us into action
and carries us wherever we go. Reason
and intellect constitute the essence of the
soul, which is perceptible by reason alone.
What has happened here is that
the soul has become undisciplined,
instigated by an excessive appetite.
This reveals itself in the many
problems commonly associated with
addictive behaviour. We should bear in
mind that each one of us has a worse
and better element within our soul.
We might reflect on those
occasions when we have allowed our
desires or emotions to lead us to
behave in a way that is out of
character and not in our best interest.
It may have been nothing more than
a momentary lapse in an otherwise
disciplined existence. There is nothing
remarkable about this. Socrates
believes that ‘…the mass of mankind lives an intemper -
ate life because of ignorance or lack of self-control or
both’. When this happens, it is because the worse part
of the soul (appetite) has been permitted to overwhelm
and control the good (knowledge and reason).
Appetite can develop to the point of excess, not
because the individual is a moral failure, or is in the
grip of a disease, but because they are human beings
like the rest of us. The development of an excessive
appetite could happen to any one of us.
‘Falling down is not
a failure. Failure
comes when you
stay where you
have fallen.’
Socrates
S
ocrates tells us that the force that leads a
person to develop an excessive appetite is
the ‘power of appearance’. The power of
appearance fools us into believing that
something bad is good. It has the capacity
to encourage a person to do something,
that, all things considered, they would not ordinarily
choose to do. In other words, it persuades them to act
against their better judgement. Think of being
tempted into eating a cream cake when dieting, or
being persuaded to have that last drink. When we
succumb to such temptation the power of appearance
has diverted attention from reason and logic, and set
the soul on a course of fulfilling the senses.
The power of appearance can exert its influence on
the imagination. Aristotle says that ‘the soul never
thinks without an image’. He adds that ‘for the most
part imaginings are false’. The choice between a good
and bad course of action is offered by the imagination.
From such an image the body is moved to act, which
could lead to an unwelcome outcome for someone
with an addiction. Aristotle’s treatment of imagination
helps us better understand why, in the event of the
bad course being chosen, relapse in addiction occurs
without any obvious triggers being present.
As human beings we are fallible, we are not
perfect. Socrates tells us that the desires we
experience can sometimes overpower reason. For
someone trying to end their addiction, the inner
conflict they experience between wanting to quit, but
finding it difficult to do so, can be characterised by the
struggle in the soul between knowledge and appetite
attempting to assert control over the other. Such
conflict can only be resolved if the soul is disciplined.
For Socrates, discipline takes the form of ‘fair words’ or
‘charms’. He sets great store by the therapeutic use of
words. Today, we might draw parallels between fair
words or charms and the talking therapies.
T
he bottom line is that the Classical
Greek philosophers warn us that we
cannot trust the body. As Socrates says:
…the body fills us with desires and
longings and fears and imaginations of
all sorts, and such quantities of trash,
that as the common saying puts it, we really never
have a moment to think about anything else because
of the body.
The Classical Greek philosophers tell us that if we are
to check unruly bodily senses and realise the truth, we
must turn to the soul. A soul that is cared for will not
deceive. It will not engage in excessive behaviour.
Addiction is a disorder of the soul – a disorder that we
can all succumb to if we care more for the body than
the soul. That we fill the body with desires and longings,
false imaginings, fears, and quantities of trash is
perhaps a metaphor for addiction in the 21st century?
Dr Albert Yates is author of A theory of addiction
founded on classical Greek philosophy, a thesis at
Manchester Metropolitan University
June 2019 | drinkanddrugsnews | 7