Environmental Research 239 ( 2023 ) 117305
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Environmental Research
journal homepage : www . elsevier . com / locate / envres
Radon exposure and its influencing factors across 3,140 workplaces in Spain Lucia Martin-Gisbert a , d , Cristina Candal-Pedreira a , c , d , Marta García-Talavera San Miguel e , Mónica Pérez-Ríos a , b , c , Juan Barros-Dios a , b , c , Leonor Varela-Lema a , b , c , Alberto Ruano-Ravina a , b , c , d ,*
a Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health , University of Santiago de Compostela , Santiago de Compostela , Spain b Consortium for Biomedical Research in Epidemiology and Public Health ( CIBER en Epidemiología y Salud Pública / CIBERESP ), Madrid , Spain c Health Research Institute of Santiago de Compostela ( Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Santiago de Compostela - IDIS ), Santiago de Compostela , Spain d Cross-disciplinary Research in Environmental Technologies ( CRETUS ), University of Santiago de Compostela , Santiago de Compostela , Spain e Spanish Nuclear Safety Council ( CSN ), Madrid , Spain
ARTICLE INFO
Handling Editor : Jose L Domingo
Keywords : Radon Environmental health Ionising radiation Workers Lung cancer
ABSTRACT
Indoor radon exposure increases the risk of lung cancer . Radon concentration in workplaces is regulated in EU countries , including Spain , based on a reference level of 300 Bq / m 3 . The objective of this study is to describe workplace radon exposure in Spain and its influencing factors . To do this , we collected long-term radon measurements with alpha track detectors in 3140 workplaces mainly located in radon prone areas . Radon concentration exceeded 300 Bq / m 3 in 1 out of 5 workplaces . Median radon concentration was 107 Bq / m 3 in radon prone areas , 28 Bq / m 3 off radon prone areas , and 101 Bq / m 3 globally for the complete sample . Our results indicate that excessive radon concentrations can be expected in radon prone areas at all floor levels , especially below ground . Floor level , working sector , and location significantly influence radon concentration . The highest radon concentrations were found in the Education & Culture sector , comprising schools , universities , libraries , or cultural centers . These results indicate that radon should no longer be considered a risk for marginal occupations , but a risk everyone has if located in a radon prone area . Immediate action , including radon testing and mitigation , is needed to protect workers in Spain against radon exposure . This is already mandatory since EU regulation for radon has been recently transposed in Spain . Competent authorities should enforce this regulation without further delay , and employers must address their responsibility and communicate with workers about this risk .
1 . Introduction
Lung cancer causes the highest number of cancer deaths worldwide ( Sung et al ., 2021 ), and is probably the most avoidable cancer . It is predominantly caused by modifiable agents , namely tobacco use . After smoking , exposure to indoor radon is considered the main risk factor in the general population ( World Health Organization , 2009 ).
Radon is a naturally-occurring radioactive gas originating from uranium decay . Radon emanates from the soil , dilutes in the atmosphere , and remains there in relatively low concentrations . However , radon accumulates in closed spaces such as dwellings or workplaces , sometimes reaching indoor concentrations above WHO or European
Union reference levels : 100 Becquerels per cubic meter ( Bq / m 3 ), and 300Bq / m 3 respectively ( World Health Organization , 2009 ; European Union , 2013 ).
When inhaled , radon and its short-term progeny ( Polonium 218 and Polonium 214 ) emit alpha radiation , a type of ionising radiation , which impacts the pulmonary cell lining and could potentially produce carcinogenic DNA mutations ( NRC ( National Research Council ), 1999 ). Each 100 Bq / m 3 increment in radon concentration at home significantly increases lung cancer risk by a 16 %, following a linear non-threshold dose-response ( Darby et al ., 2006 ). Furthermore , there is a synergistic effect between radon and tobacco smoking ( Darby et al ., 2006 ). A linear effect has also been demonstrated for never smokers . Different studies in
*
Corresponding author . Address : Area of Preventive Medicine and Public Health School of Medicine , C / San Francisco s / n University of Santiago de Compostela , Postal Code 15782 , Santiago de Compostela , Spain .
E-mail address : alberto . ruano @ usc . es ( A . Ruano-Ravina ).
https :// doi . org / 10.1016 / j . envres . 2023.117305 Received 27 August 2023 ; Received in revised form 2 October 2023 ; Accepted 3 October 2023
Available online 17 October 2023 0013-9351 /© 2023 The Authors . Published by Elsevier Inc . This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license ( http :// creativecommons . org / licenses / bync-nd / 4.0 /).