accessible to the masses; the Education Act of 1870
committed the government to the systematic provision of
universal education for the first time. Education became
free of charge in 1891. The school-leaving age was set at
eleven in 1893. In 1899 it was increased to twelve, and
special provisions for the children of needy families were
introduced. As a result of these changes, the proportion of
ten-year-olds enrolled in school, which stood at a
disappointing 40 percent in 1870, increased to 100
percent in 1900. Finally, the Education Act of 1902 led to a
large expansion in resources for schools and introduced
the grammar schools, which subsequently became the
foundation of secondary education in Britain.
In fact, the British example, an illustration of the virtuous
circle of inclusive institutions, provides an example of a
“gradual virtuous circle.” The political changes were
unmistakably toward more inclusive political institutions and
were the result of demands from empowered masses. But
they were also gradual. Every decade another step,
sometimes smaller, sometimes larger, was taken toward
democracy. There was conflict over each step, and the
outcome of each was contingent. But the virtuous circle
created forces that reduced the stakes involved in clinging
to power. It also spurred the rule of law, making it harder to
use force against those who were demanding what these
elites had themselves demanded from Stuart monarchs. It
became less likely that this conflict would turn into an all-out
revolution and more likely that it would be resolved in favor
of greater inclusiveness. There is great virtue in this sort of
gradual change. It is less threatening to the elite than the
wholesale overthrow of the system. Each step is small, and
it makes sense to give in to a small demand rather than
create a major showdown. This partly explains how the
Corn Law was repealed without more serious conflict. By
1846 landowners could no longer control legislation in
Parliament. This was an outcome of the First Reform Act.
However, if in 1832 the expansion of the electorate, the
reform of the rotten boroughs, and the repeal of the Corn
Laws had all been on the table, landowners would have put
up much more resistance. The fact that there were first
limited political reforms and that repeal of the Corn Laws
came on the agenda only later defused conflict.