Intensive repetitive musical practice may result in plastic brain reorganisation . 8 Musical training may shape motor and cognitive functions in early development . 8 Evidence indicates that infants are sensitive to many sound features fundamental to music across cultures . Their discrimination of pitch and timing differences and their perception of equivalence classes are similar to those of listeners who have had many years of exposure to music . 9 Musical training and experience utilise a wide variety of multisensory experiences , including motor functions , reading of musical notation , and auditory functions . It is possible that this experience could lead to transfer effects in a number of brain regions and cognitive areas . 8
Music and Health
Music has numerous health benefits . 7 These include higher levels of wellbeing , 7 , 10 cognitive function , 8 brain stimulation , 11 sense of purpose and fulfilment , 10 good quality of life , 10 social cohesion , 10 empowerment , 10 selfexpression , 10 personal development , 10 positive wellbeing , 10 improved motor skills , 11 and immune system enhancement . 11 Music has been found to benefit people with stress , 12 anxiety , and depression . 11-13 Listening to music has been found to improve subjective sleep quality in adults with insomnia symptoms . 14 Evidence indicates that listening to preferred music has beneficial effects in the areas of cardiac and neurological function , 4 such as changes in heart rate , 6 , 11 respiration , blood pressure , and muscle tension . 6 Research confirms that listening to music for pleasure is related to a change in emotional arousal . 4 Music has been found to exert positive effects on physical activity . 15 Listening to music across a range of physical activities ( including exercise and sports ) has been found to promote more positive affective valence , enhance physical performance ( i . e ., ergogenic effect ), reduce perceived exertion , and improve physiological efficiency . 15
The “ Mozart effect ” refers to an enhancement or normalisation of higher brain function associated with listening to Mozart ’ s music . 16 The Mozart effect was coined after a study found that normal subjects showed significantly better spatial reasoning skills listening to Mozart ’ s Sonata for Two Pianos ( K448 ) for 10 minutes . This was compared to the effect of listening to periods of relaxation instructions designed to lower blood pressure or silence . The mean spatial IQ scores of participants were 8 and 9 points higher after listening to Mozart ’ s music . 17 The Mozart effect was investigated in 45 children ( 2-18 years ; mean 7 years 10 months ) who had epileptiform activity on EEG . 16 Mozart ’ s Sonata for Two Pianos in D major ( K448 ) and ageappropriate control music were played during the EEG . The study found a significant reduction ( p < 0.0005 ) in the frequency of epileptic discharges during listening to Mozart music compared to the baseline . A study in patients with epilepsy investigated the differences between the first movement of Mozart ’ s Sonata for Two Pianos ( K448 ) and to the first movement of Haydn ’ s Symphony No . 94 . 18 Epileptiform discharges in intracerebral electroencephalography were reduced by Mozart ’ s music . Listening to Haydn ’ s music led to reduced epileptiform discharges only in women . A meta-analysis found significant reductions in seizures and interictal epileptiform discharge frequencies after long-term music treatment . 19 Additionally , the metaanalysis found a significant reduction in interictal epileptiform discharge frequency during and after a single music stimulus . The use of Mozart ’ s music may be beneficial for children with high dental anxiety levels . 20 Research found that listening to Mozart ’ s music before toothbrushing training significantly affected plaque removal in children with high dental anxiety .
Heart rate responses vary widely when participating in the performing arts . For example , drumming , musical theatre ( singing and dance ), and singing ( operetta ) promoted a vigorous heart rate response - greater than 77 % of maximum heart rate . Moderate performance included clarinet , flute , marching band , opera conductor , orchestra instruments , piano , singing ( opera ). Light performance included clarinet , contemporary band , percussion , strings , wind instruments and very light rehearsal included contemporary band , flute , marching band , piano , singing , strings , trumpet , wind instruments . Very light rehearsal promoted a heart rate response of less than 57 % of maximum heart rate . 21 It is interesting to note that some instruments cross over categories based on whether it was practice or rehearsal versus performance .
A 2007 study investigated the effect of piano music on cognitive attention and memory in older adults ( 60-85 years ). 22 Subjects in the study participated in one 30-minute individual piano lesson per week plus 3 hours of individual practice time . There were improvements in memory and cognitive attention , which were sustained over the 6-month intervention period . 22 The study also found that the skills gained in the intervention were transferable to other non-musical activities . 22 The results of this study suggest that music may have a wider therapeutic role in ageing than was once thought . Music shows promise in the management of Alzheimer ’ s disease . 23 , 24 Effects of music in patients with Alzheimer ’ s disease included improved cognition , mood , reduced depressive scores and trait anxiety , enhanced autobiographical recall , and verbal fluency . 24
A study investigated the effect of listening to music at two different frequencies ( 440 Hz and 432 Hz ). 25 The study involved 33 participants in two sessions of listening to music on different days . Both sessions used the same music ( movie soundtracks ). One session was tuned to 440 Hz on one day and the other session to 432 Hz on the other day . Each session consisted of 20 minutes of listening . The music tuned to 432 Hz was associated with a slight decrease in mean systolic and diastolic blood pressure , a slight decrease of the mean respiratory rate values ( 1 r . a ., p = 0.06 ), and a marked decrease in the mean heart rate ( -4.79 bpm , p = 0.05 ) compared
208 | vol28 | no4 | JATMS