VITALISM
Within that philosophy , two different perspectives rose from its search for understanding of the fundamental nature of reality .( 11 ) On one hand , atomist philosophers such as Leucippus and Democritus believed that the universe was composed only of atoms , which were indivisible particles too small to be perceived by the eye .( 12 ) These philosophers considered that there was nothing else except void . The material world which could be perceived by the senses resulted simply from aggregations of atoms entangled together due to their matching shapes .
In contrast , other ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle acknowledged the material aspect of the universe but argued that there was more to reality than just matter and void .( 12 ) The apparently complex yet organised nature of the universe suggested that it had resulted from some unseen intelligent force which existed throughout the universe and had created and maintained it in order . ( 13 ) Accordingly , these philosophers considered that the universe , being composed of intelligence and matter , was of a dual nature . In addition to matter , a universal intelligence was the Form of an ordered , wholistic , purposeful universe ( 14 ). The concept of the Form was posited by Plato as the perfect , unchanging , and immortal ideal or essence of a value or thing .( 14 ) A Form could not be perceived by the senses as it transcended space , time , and the physical world . According to Aristotle , this perspective included the psyche ( soul ) as a part of universal intelligence and as the Form of an intelligent life force which existed in and differentiated living organisms from non-living things .( 15 ) Thus the origins of vitalism lie deep in these ancient Greek roots of Western culture ,( 16 ) and Aristotle has been referred to as the first vitalist .( 2 )
Other ways of thinking later evolved from atomism and from intelligence / matter dualism . From atomism arose materialism ( the belief that the universe is composed of physical material , and nothing else );( 17 ) mechanism ( the belief that the universe and everything in it can be understood as matter in motion );( 18 ) reductionism ( the belief that the universe can be best understood by reducing it to its smallest constituents );( 19 , 20 ) and positivism . These four perspectives have greatly influenced the development of modern science and have been considered by many to be valid ontological and / or epistemological bases for the scientific investigation of reality .( 4 , 20 , 21 )
In contrast , intelligence / matter dualism informed the teachings of Christianity . ( 11 , 22 ) The Greek concept of universal intelligence evolved to be identified as God , with the material aspect of reality made up mainly of the Earth and its inhabitants .( 23 ) In Christian doctrine , the manifestation in material form of the Son of God Jesus Christ on Earth was believed to link the metaphysical and physical realms of existence .( 23 ) The interplay and tension between the two original ancient Greek perspectives and their philosophical , religious , and scientific descendants have existed and been influential throughout the history of Western civilisation and continue to be so today .( 11 )
The origins of vitalism in chiropractic
The first use of the word vitalism in the chiropractic literature appears to have been in 1908 , when Erz linked vitalism and innate intelligence .( 24 ) Innate intelligence was the term used by Palmer to describe the portion of a universal intelligence which exists in living organisms .( 8 ) In chiropractic , vitalism ’ s characteristic life force has been referred to by some as innate intelligence .( 25 , 26 ) Palmer built on pre-existing models of health and disease ( 27 , 28 ) to propose that innate intelligence originated mental impulses in the brain and was transmitted over the nervous system in the form of these impulses manifest as molecular vibrations .( 8 ) The energy conveyed in these vibrations supplied the appropriate amount of life force to all body parts and produced in them a state of tone , that is , normal tension and elasticity .( 29 ) The concept of tone had been a key concept in ancient Greek philosophy ( 30 ) and had been used in neurophysiology before Palmer ’ s time . ( 27 ) In a state of normal tone , nerves and organs functioned properly , according to the body ’ s needs , and created life and health by organising ingested materials to constitute and maintain the living body . For Palmer , life arose from the combination of intelligent spirit and unintelligent matter .( 8 )
However , Palmer also proposed that the effects of physical , chemical , and / or psychological trauma could lead to changes in nerve and muscle tone and what he termed subluxations ( displacements ) between the parts of the skeletal system .( 8 ) Subluxations could involve bone impinging on nerves , making them too slack or tight , depressing or exciting impulses within them , and creating a deficiency or excess of tone and organ function . These states could then lead to abnormal organ function and disease . The task of the chiropractor was to locate and adjust subluxations , thereby facilitating restoration of normal nerve impulse transmission , tone , organ function , healing , and health . In this understanding of health and disease , Palmer posited that chiropractic was not a treatment of disease but a system for the preservation of health . He also identified tone as the fundamental principle of chiropractic and the link between vitalistic innate intelligence , the physical body , and health and disease ( 8 , 29 ).
Palmer ’ s intellectual abilities were notable in that he was able to access and integrate knowledge from a broad range of sources , including intuition , religion , philosophy , science , and practical experience .( 31-33 ) Accordingly , he obtained , understood , linked , and expressed concepts relevant to his vitalistic understandings of chiropractic from different sources and in different terms . For example , he also referred
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