consistent adherence to self-care practices over long periods . 14 Additionally , older individuals are at increased risk of , and are more susceptible to , adverse drug effects from various medications due to alterations in pharmacokinetics associated with ageing . 11 The complexity of medication self-care and the likelihood of medication errors rise with an increase in the number of daily medications taken . 11
Self-efficacy , a factor that affects self-care , is described as the confidence in one ’ s ability and capacity to accomplish goals in particular circumstances . 14 Self-efficacy has been recognised as a factor that requires attention to initiatives aimed at enhancing self-care . 14 Elevated levels of self-efficacy have the potential to facilitate determination , particularly in the context of self-care for minor ailments . 54 This suggests that heightened self-efficacy could result in greater persistence in managing symptoms and a willingness to take more independent action in matters concerning one ’ s health . 54
Health literacy is a key component of self-care . 52 Health literacy refers to an individual ’ s capacity to comprehend , interpret , and utilise information in order to maintain good health . 1 Evidence suggests that individuals with limited health literacy struggle to grasp healthrelated concepts , resulting in poor adherence to self-care routines such as following prescribed diets , consistently taking nutritional medicines , herbal medicines and medications , and ultimately experiencing negative and adverse health outcomes . 1 Self-care relies on improving individuals ’ health literacy so that they are able to understand and utilise health information acquired independently or from health professionals , enabling them to make well-informed decisions regarding their healthcare . 52
To enhance the effectiveness and outcomes of self-care practices , it is essential to identify and remove the various factors , barriers , and challenges that may hinder self-care efforts .
Elements of self-care
Numerous elements contribute to selfcare . This section of the article outlines a variety of these elements , encompassing nutrition , herbal medicine , and lifestyle medicine , such as physical activity , meditation , adequate sleep , and exposure to nature .
Self-care and nutrition
Optimum nutrition is the foundation for optimum health . 20 , 56 Poor nutrition is one of the most critical risk factors for chronic disease . 57 While the focus of nutrition in self-care should be on whole foods , specific nutrients from particular whole foods can be personalised to optimise health . This part introduces a number of vitamins , minerals , and water that that offer benefits in supporting selfcare practices .
Figure 1 . Elements of self-care
Vitamins play various roles in supporting self-care . Thiamine ( Vitamin B1 ) is
58 , 59
involved in energy metabolism , metabolism of glucose , 60 nerve structure and function , 61 plays an important role in nerve conduction and excitability , 62 and modulates cognitive performance . 63 Riboflavin ( Vitamin B2 ) is involved in normal cell function , 64 , 65 energy metabolism , 64-66 normal functioning of the nervous system , 67 and antioxidant function . 66 , 68 , 69 Nicotinamide ( Vitamin
68 , 70
B3 ) is involved in DNA metabolism , modulation of inflammation 68 , 70 , 71 and energy metabolism ; 68 , 70 , 72 it modulates insulin secretion , 70 and reduces lipid peroxidation . 71 Pantothenic acid ( Vitamin B5 ) is involved in energy metabolism , 68 fatty acid synthesis and degradation , 68 and the synthesis of neurotransmitters . 68 , 72 Pyridoxine ( Vitamin B6 ) participates in more than 100 enzymatic reactions 73 and is involved in formation of haemoglobin , 64 synthesis of neurotransmitters , 63 , 73 and nerve conduction and excitability . 62 Folate ( 5-MTHF ) is involved in one-carbon metabolism , 74-80
64 , 66 , 72 , 75 , 80 methylation processes , neurotransmitter synthesis , 68 and endothelial cell function . 72 Cobalamin ( Vitamin B12 ) is involved in energy metabolism , 64 methylation , 66 red blood cell formation , 65 and normal functioning of the nervous system . 81 Vitamin C is required for normal physiological functions . 82 Vitamin C has anti-inflammatory properties , 83 is an antioxidant , 65 , 72 , 73 , 82 , 84 , 85 and is
65 , 72 , 73 required for collagen synthesis and immune system modulation . 86 Colecalciferol ( Vitamin D3 ) is involved in differentiation , 87 , 88 gene expression , 88 neuromuscular activity , 89 bone health , 72 muscle function , 88 72 , 89
muscle strength , and the immune system . 72 , 88 Tocotrienol ( Vitamin E ) has anti-inflammatory , 90-94 64 , 72 , 73 , 85 , 90 , 92-100 antioxidant , neuroprotective , 94-96 , 98 , 101 , 102 immune function , 73 and cholesterol-lowering properties . 91 , 93 , 103 Menaquinone-7 ( Vitamin K2 ) has anti-inflammatory 104 and antioxidant properties . 105 It is involved in coagulation , 73 , 104 , 106 , 107 108 , 109
bone health , and brain signalling . 105 Omega-3 is involved in cell membrane phospholipid composition , 110-112 cell membrane function , 111 , 113 112 , 113
cell membrane fluidity , regulation of platelet activation and aggregation , 20-22 , 114 mental health , 115-119 and has anti-inflammatory 20 , 22 , 111-114 , 119 , 120 and antioxidant 113 , 120 properties .
Minerals play various roles in supporting self-care . Calcium is involved in signal transduction , 121 , 122 cell signalling , 123 coagulation , 124 maintenance of bone , 125 and muscle contraction . 121-123 Chromium is involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates , 126 , 127 128 , 129
glucose , lipids , 126 , 127 , 129 protein , 126 and insulin . 129
72 , 130 , 131
Iodine is involved in metabolism , metabolic regulation , 131-134 production
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