APPLIED COACHING RESEARCH JOURNAL 2021 , Vol . 7
solve a problem various times , another athlete may benefit from receiving video performance feedback and infrequent questioning to guide their search , exploration and discovery .
This nonlinear view of sports performance ( eg the unpredictability of climbing , swimming and team games ) could transform the culture of coaching ( Otte et al , 2019 ). For example , coaches may need to move away from the idea of predictable technical movement rehearsal and linear progression for all athletes ( eg from simple to complex throughout a session ) and could consider tasks high in unpredictability to encourage athlete adaptations and exploration ( Chow , 2013 ). In short , coaches need to ‘ embrace the messiness of performance ’ in their practice designs , by including opportunities for exploring movement variability . Previous research shows that expert athletes actually display higher levels of variability in their actions , compared to novices , yielding enlarged movement repertoires and more functional solutions in response to changing constraints in performance ( Davids et al , 2015 ; Seifert et al , 2013 ).
So , what is the main coaching implication of this perspective on movement variability ? A clear shift away from coaches emphasising the reproduction of ‘ idealised ’ movement techniques is proposed . It is argued that task constraint manipulations can help learners to experience and explore movement variability and skill adaptation in training ( Davids et al , 2008 ; Ranganathan and Newell , 2013 ). This idea was neatly illustrated by data of Brocken and colleagues ( 2020 ) who showed how equipment modification of hockey balls can enhance exploration and adaptability in young players ’ dribbling skills .
Summary This article summarised contemporary research and skill training theory from a Nonlinear Pedagogy and the Constraints-Led Approach for coaches , athletes and educators to inform their practice ( see Figure 1 and Table 1 ). At the outset of this article , we suggested that coaches would benefit from a model of learning and the athlete learning process to guide their work . With this in mind , we sought to : i ) sensitise coaches and educators towards considering the wider context of nonlinear athlete development ; ii ), develop coaches ’ understanding of the importance of integrating environmental information and athlete movements in training ; and iii ), highlight the individuality of athletes and the athlete-coach relationship , including coaching approaches impacting the co-design of training tasks .
We conclude by proposing five guiding training principles : 1 . The training design is the main ‘ stimulus ’ for athlete learning – Consider co-designing training together with the athlete ( s ). They understand their needs well and co-designing practice tasks could deeply engage them in performance preparation and their continued development .
2 . Train the way you play – The context to practice and training should be representative of performance ; avoid skills practice in isolation and keep information and movements coupled . Training designs should , ultimately , seek to challenge athletes as they may be challenged in different phases of competition environments .
3 . ‘ Repetition without repetition ’ in training – Requires athletes to repeatedly solve problems that they may face in competition , as opposed to rehearsing a single technical movement solution in isolated drills .
4 . Encourage exploration and movement variability in training – Related to point 3 , help athletes learn that the same performance outcome or goal can be achieved in various ways , depending on the constraints faced . 5 . Athletes are the problem-solvers – Remember : the coach is not the ‘ solver of problems ’ for athletes and instead guides , facilitates and moderates the individual to enjoy facing challenges , resolve problems , and take responsibility by making choices and decisions .
References Due to this article ’ s focus on providing an understandable overview of many relevant concepts and studies related to motor learning theory and coaching , Table 1 ( in the text ) and the following reference list aim to further support coaches .
Adolph , K . and Hoch , J . ( 2019 ) Motor development : Embodied , embedded , enculturated , and enabling . Annual Review of Psychology , 70 ( 1 ): 141-164 .
Araújo , D . and Davids , K . ( 2011 ) What exactly is acquired during skill acquisition ? Journal of Consciousness Studies , 18 : 7 – 23 .
Bernstein , N . A . ( 1967 ) The Co-ordination and Regulations of Movements . Oxford : Pergamon Press .
Brackley , V . ( 2017 ) A tennis specific practice assessment tool using the principles of representative learning design . [ online ] Available
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