APPLIED COACHING RESEARCH JOURNAL 2021 , Vol . 7
understand transfer from performance , focused less on frequently executing a single solution / technique in isolation , and more on learners being challenged to repeatedly solve performance problems in varying contexts . This is well captured in Gray ’ s ( 2020 ) words : ” We want to teach you how to repeat a good outcome without repeating a movement because we ’ re adding variability .” For example , instead of repeatedly slalom-dribbling through a set of static poles or cones prior to shooting at goal from a predetermined position , players could be encouraged to repeatedly solve 5v3 attacking situations near goal that create / prevent different dribbling and shooting opportunities in the playing area . This practice design will help learners to repeat the attacking problem with the same outcome in mind , but the solutions to solve this problem are varied .
In summary , the concept of ‘ repetition without repetition ’ may be applied to skill training on various levels . It encourages coaches to include problems , challenges and choices for athletes in order to variably adapt movement solutions and perceive varied and relevant affordances / opportunities for actions .
Coaches as facilitators and moderators
Effectively crafted training designs allow athletes to search for functional movement solutions . An ecological perspective on practice design guides coaches to not solve problems for athletes or to tell them how to resolve these challenges . Thus , a more hands-off coaching style is proposed ( see Davids et al , 2008 and Table 1 ). In simple terms , the coach should not be the main problem-solver during training , constantly instructing the athlete how to complete a task . Rather , it is the coach ’ s challenge to place the athlete at the centre of the learning process and design the training environment around their needs . This can be achieved by manipulating constraints and carefully guiding attention and learners ’ problem-solving activities . There are many excellent design examples of this ecological approach in existing sport science and pedagogy literature ( eg Correia et al , 2019 ; Mckay and O ’ Connor , 2018 ; Woods et al , 2020a , 2020b ). Aligned with manipulating task constraints during training , verbal instructions and feedback may be viewed as merely an additional tool for constraining , moderating and directing athletes ’ attention and search activities in practice ( Newell and Ranganathan , 2010 ). To develop understanding , we recently proposed a framework on when and how to provide feedback and instructions to athletes ( see Otte et al , 2020b ). The framework proposes various feedback and instruction methods , such as task-oriented coaching , the question-and-answer approach , observational learning , using video feedback , or analogy learning . These methods are relevant to many coaching situations for helping athletes learn how to search within a practice task for relevant information and affordances / opportunities for actions . We recommend coaches dive deeper into psychological and motor learning research to understand the ‘ why ’ behind the ‘ how ’ to ( verbally ) coach . For example , valuable follow-up resources include literature on : the attentional focus and motor learning ( eg Wulf , 2013 ); explicit versus implicit learning ( eg Jackson and Farrow , 2005 ); the theory of reinvestment ( eg Masters and Maxwell , 2008 ); and use of coaching language and analogies ( Winkelman , 2020 ).
Wayfinding , nonlinear learning and movement variability
The athlete-coach relationship and the coach ’ s understanding of how individual athletes explore performance environments is a critical part of practice . From this ecological perspective , understanding how athletes learn may be supported by thinking of individuals acting as wayfinders , who “ self-regulate their way through competitive performance environments ” ( Otte et al , 2020cd ). Put simply , by placing athletes in goal-directed , representative training environments , and allowing them time and space for exploration , they can learn to explore their individualised and creative actions . This approach to learning needs to start at an early age in athlete development in order to continuously enhance the proficiency and confidence of learners to function in various sporting environments throughout their whole career ( Woods et al , 2020c ). The process of wayfinding challenges athletes to develop and refine decision-making , self-awareness , and engagement with various constraints of the training environment , and learn to detect most relevant information to drive their intended actions in performance ( Woods et al , 2020c ).
As we conclude this article , it is important to acknowledge the nonlinear nature of learning : evidence shows that individuals learn at different rates , at contrasting time scales , often achieving performance outcomes in diverse ways ( see Table 1 for proposed references ). This nonlinear development pathway underpins the idea that learning is not a linear and tidy process . Rather it is messy , noisy and highly variable ( Davids , 2015 ). This ecological perspective on athlete development emphasises the importance of individualised pathways for learning ( e . g . Otte et al , 2019 ). For example , while one athlete may just need to be given the opportunity ( and the coach ’ s patience ) to
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