APPLIED COACHING RESEARCH JOURNAL 2020 , Vol . 6 performance , player welfare and organisation . Coping mechanisms used included problem , emotion and avoidance-focused strategies . This study displayed that Think Aloud can be used as a measure of stressors and coping mechanisms in coaches . It provides practical implications for coaches , in that they may consider the use of Think Aloud to gain an understanding of their current stress and coping responses and , in turn , improve their coping responses during competition-specific situations .
Keywords Coaching , Think Aloud , stress , coping , football , competition .
Introduction Stressors and how they are consequently coped with depict a key area of applied sport and coaching research ( Whitehead et al ., 2016 ; Thelwell et al ., 2007 ). More specifically within coaching , it is important that we gain knowledge and understanding of what stressors occur and the subsequent coping mechanisms that are in place . Stress in both the athlete and coach can have a significant impact on performance ( Lazarus , 2000 ). According to Norris et al . ( 2017 ), coach stress can have a negative impact on an athlete , highlighting the need for stressors to be further researched within a coaching setting .
The Transactional Model of Stress and Coping ( TMSC ) ( Lazarus and Folkman , 1984 ) was used to underpin this research . The model depicts stress and coping instances occurring in a number of stages , the first of which is the primary appraisal . The primary appraisal represents a stage where threat , harm or a challenge must be dealt with ( Swettenham et al ., 2020 ; Quine and Pahl , 1991 ). Following this is the secondary appraisal , where there is an analysis of obtainable resources for coping ( Quine and Pahl , 1991 ). Within athlete research , Swettenham et al . ( 2020 ) illustrate positive coping as seeing situations more as challenges rather than threats . The most widely used coping dimensions are problem-focused , emotion-focused and avoidance coping ( Nicholls and Polman , 2008 ; Compas et al ., 2001 ).
The primary appraisal of the TMSC has been examined in sport and coaching . Such research has provided evidence for the negative psychological effects of coaching , such as self-doubt and anger ( Olusoga et al ., 2010 ). These are indicative of the stressors coaching can bring . Research has evidenced how a football coach ’ s stress originated from bad performances , inappropriate training conditions and officiating ( Thelwell , et al ., 2010 ), in addition to competition environment and athlete behaviours ( Rees , 2011 ). Other research indicates that coaches experience a range of different stressors within a football environment , such as poor officiating and contract violation ( Surujilal and Nguyen , 2011 ).
As stress and coping is a transactional process and does not occur in isolation ( Lazarus and Folkman , 1984 ), it is important to consider the coping mechanisms that are employed by coaches when experiencing stressors . Potts et al . ( 2019 ) found that the most salient coping mechanisms within coaching involved problem solving , information seeking , selfreliance and seeking support in coaches . Olusoga et al ., ( 2010 ) also found that elite coaches prioritised psychological skills , planning and the coachathlete relationship in their coping . Other coping mechanisms that have been reported involved mindfulness training ( Longshore and Sachs , 2015 ).
A common theme throughout the majority of these previous studies is a reliance on retrospective methods of data collection ( Potts et al ., 2019 ; Olusoga et al ., 2010 ). Capturing stress and coping data from a participant at a later date may be distorted by memory decay or knowledge about the success of the task , which may lead to biased reports ( Ericsson and Simon , 1980 ; Whitehead et al ., 2015 ).
Think Aloud offers an alternative method that eradicates such disadvantages ( Ericsson and Simon , 1993 ). Think Aloud represents a form of verbal reporting that involves a person verbalising his or her thoughts throughout the duration of a task ( Eccles and Arsal , 2017 ). This permits information within the short-term memory to be captured in real time . Such thoughts and feelings may be forgotten if asked to recall at a later time . Consequently , Think Aloud offers a potential solution to retrospective memory decay or potential bias in reports . Ericsson and Simon ( 1980 ) propose three different levels of Think Aloud :
• Level 1 - the expression of inner speech
• Level 2 - the articulation of thoughts that are not in a direct focus but must be said aloud
• Level 3 - explanation surrounding certain cognitions and reasons for actions .
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