How fentanyl is produced and distributed
Licit fentanyl and its derivatives are developed by the legitimate pharmaceutical industry . However , pharmaceutical products can be diverted via theft , fraudulent prescriptions or illegally distributed by patients and medical practitioners . Since fentanyl is a fully synthetic opioid , it can be illicitly produced . It can be either sold alone or in combination with other drugs . Drug dealers may combine fentanyl with heroin , cocaine , methamphetamine and MDMA to maximize profitability . This is particularly dangerous for fentanyl consumers as they may not be aware of the dosage , which exposes them to higher risks of overdose . Regarding its composition , fentanyl and its derivatives can be synthesized via different methods by using specific precursor chemicals , which may be subject to national and international controls .
International , North American and European legislations
At the international level , the United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs ( UNODC ) applies . In 2017 , two precursor chemicals were placed under international control by the Commission on Narcotic Drugs ; however , drug trafficking organizations ( DTOs ) started to use alternative precursor chemicals to illicitly manufacture fentanyl or its analogs . As a result , in March 2022 , three additional precursors were added to the convention . 11
“ Preventing legally traded drug precursors from being diverted into the illegal circuit contributes to the fight against the supply of illegal drugs — as it reduces the amount of available chemicals necessary to make the drugs .” 12
In Canada , fentanyl , its salts , derivatives , analogs and salts of derivatives and analogs are listed under Schedule 1 of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act , which makes it a criminal offense to possess these substances except as authorized under the regulations . 13 In the U . S ., fentanyl is listed under Schedule 2 of the Controlled Substances Act , which means that it has a high potential for abuse , has a currently accepted medical use ( with severe restrictions ), and its abuse can lead to severe psychological or physical dependence . 14 The DEA compiled a comprehensive list of all controlled substances . 15 In the European Union , fentanyl is listed under Schedule 1 as per the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs , which means that it has addictive properties , presents a serious risk of abuse and has a strict degree of control . 16 It is worth noting that the member states classify controlled substances based on three United Nations ( U . N .) conventions . 17
The trafficking of fentanyl
The UNODC stated , “ there are currently two main dynamically evolving non-medical opioid use epidemics in the world , both driven by the relatively high availability of opioids produced at low cost . One is related to illicitly produced fentanyl , which have been mixed with heroin and other drugs in North America .” 18 According to the DEA , Mexican OCGs ’ supply to the U . S . fentanyl market is increasing , while the supply of fentanyl from China has decreased substantially due to the scheduling placed on fentanyl and fentanyl-related substances in China in 2019 . In fact , Mexican OCGs such as the Sinaloa Cartel and the Jalisco New Generation Cartel ( CJNG ) constitute the greatest threat to the U . S . These OCGs import precursor chemicals from countries with large and thriving pharmaceutical industries in Asia , especially China and India . 19 In addition , OCGs may employ chemical diverters or middlers , who can act as intermediaries between legitimate precursor chemical producers and clandestine drug laboratories . 20 Clandestine laboratories controlled by OCGs producing fentanyl with precursor chemicals can be found in North America , especially in Mexico and Canada . DTOs process and transform precursor chemicals into final drug products by using specialized equipment , which includes pressure vessels , laboratory glassware , pill presses , encapsulating machines , etc . 21 The illicitly manufactured fentanyl in foreign clandestine laboratories is then smuggled overland , primarily across the Southwest border , and trafficked into the U . S . mainly in powder and pill form . The proceeds of synthetic opioid trafficking are primarily generated within the destination countries where fentanyl is consumed . According to UNODC , the wholesale price of fentanyl during the year 2019 varied between $ 10,000 and $ 90,000 per kilogram and the street price varied between $ 2 and $ 60 per pill . Outside of the North American drug market , the prices increase significantly . For example , in Estonia , the wholesale price of fentanyl for the year 2019 ranged between $ 2,000 and $ 3,000 per 10 grams . 22
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